Benazepril – the drug of choice in chronic kidney disease? Review article
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Published:
Sep 30, 2009
Keywords:
renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis, angiotensin II, angiotensin converting enzyme, ACE inhibitors, benazepril, chronic kidney disease, proteinuria
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Abstract
According to several epidemiological reports chronic kidney disease (CKD) may affect up to 10 – 15% of population in Europe and the United States and the prevalence of CKD increases significantly with age. Ethnic minorities are even more exposed to the risk of CKD. Increased activity of renin-angiotensin-aldosterone axis, both systemic and local appears the most important mechanism of development and further progression of this disease. Angiotensin II and aldosterone are not only direct effectors of kidney damage, but they also ‘integrate’ several adverse pathologies, such as endothelial dysfunction, hypercoagulation status, oxidative stress, hyperactivity of sympathetic system, inflammation and other. Since angiotensin II seems to be a key player in kidney damage, the obvious and most justified treatment strategy is to block its synthesis using angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. Among a number of ACE inhibitors available the special attention should be focused on benazepril – the drug with an excellent and exceptional renoprotective value, which has been repeatedly demonstrated in both experimental models and large, multicenter, randomized controlled trials.
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Stompór, T. (2009). Benazepril – the drug of choice in chronic kidney disease?. Medycyna Faktow (J EBM), 2(3(4), 61-74. Retrieved from https://journalsmededu.pl/index.php/jebm/article/view/2650
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References
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2. Friedman E.A., Friedman A.L., Eggers P.: End-stage renal disease in diabetic persons: is the pandemic subsiding? Kidney Int. 2007; 70: S51-S54.
3. Friedman E.A., Friedman A.L.: Is there really good news about pandemic diabetic nephropathy? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2007; 22: 681-683.
4. Thomas M.C., Atkins R.C.: Blood pressure lowering for the prevention and treatment of diabetic kidney disease. Drugs 2006; 66: 2213-2234.
5. Michielsen P.: In memoriam ‘analgesic nephropathy’ (circa 1972-2006). Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2007; 22: 999-1001.
6. Morgera S., Schneider M., Neumayer H.H.: Long-term outcomes after acute kidney injury. Crit. Care Med. 2008; 36 (4 Suppl): S193-S197.
7. Debelle F.D., Vanherweghem J.L., Nortier J.L.: Aristolochic acid nephropathy: a worldwide problem. Kidney Int. 2008; 74: 158-169.
8. Amirlak I., Amirlak B.: Haemolytic uraemic syndrome: an overview. Nephrology 2006; 11: 213-218.
9. Reiss G., Kunz P., Koin D., Keeffe E.B.: Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection in nursing homes: review of literature and report of recent outbreak. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2006; 54: 680-684 (Review).
10. Sarnak M.J., Levey A.S., Schoolwerth A.C. et al.: Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, Epidemiology and Prevention. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1050-1065.
11. Wetzels J.F., Kiemeney L.A., Swinkels D. et al.: Age- and gender-specific reference values of estimated GFR in Caucasians: the Nijmegen Biomedical Study. Kidney Int. 2007; 72: 632-637.
12. Król E., Rutkowski B., Czarniak P. et al.: Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease: Results of the PolNef Study. Am. J. Nephrol. 2008; 29: 264-273.
13. Rutkowski B., Król E.: Epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in Central and Eastern Europe. Blood Purif. 2008; 26: 381-385.
14. Hoy W.E., Bertram J.F., Denton R.D., Zimanyi M., Samuel T., Hughson M.D.: Nephron number, glomerular volume, renal disease and hypertension. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2008; 17: 258-265.
15. Brenner B.M.: Remission of renal disease: recounting the challenge, acquiring the goal. J. Clin. Invest. 2004; 10: 1753-1758.
16. Navar L.G.: The intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in hypertension. Kidney Int. 2004; 65: 1522-1532.
17. Noronha I.L., Fujihara C.K., Zatz R.: The inflammatory component in progressive renal disease--are interventions possible? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2002; 17: 363-368.
18. Suzuki Y., Ruiz-Ortega M., Gomez-Guerro C. et al.: Angiotensin II, the immune system and renal diseases: another road for RAS? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2003; 18: 1423-1426.
19. Liu Y.: Epithelial to mesenchymal transition in renal fibrogenesis: pathologic significance, molecular mechanism, and therapeutic intervention. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2004; 15: 1-12.
20. Gruden G., Setti G., Hayward A. et al.: Mechanical stretch induces monocyte chemoattractant activity via an NF-kappaB-dependent monocyte chemoattractant protein-1-mediated pathway in human mesangial cells: inhibition by rosiglitazone. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2005; 16: 688-696.
21. Riser B.L., Varani J., Cortes P. et al.: Cyclic stretching of mesangial cells up-regulates intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and leukocyte adherence: a possible new mechanism for glomerulosclerosis. Am. J. Pathol. 2001; 158: 11-17.
22. Durvasula R.V., Petermann A.T., Hiromura K. et al.: Activation of a local tissue angiotensin system in podocytes by mechanical strain. Kidney Int. 2004; 65: 30-39.
23. Shackland S.J.: The podocyte’s response to injury: role in proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis. Kidney Int. 2006; 69: 2131-2147.
24. Ruggenenti P., Perna A., Mosconi L., Pisoni R., Remuzzi G.: Urinary protein excretion rate is the best independent predictor of ESRF in nondiabetic proteinuric chronic nephropathies. Kidney Int. 1998; 53: 1209-1216.
25. Ishani A., Grandits G.A., Grimm R.H. et al.: Association of single measurements of dipstick proteinuria, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and hematocrit with 25-year incidence of end-stage renal disease in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2006; 17: 1444-1452.
26. Brin H., Christensen E.: Renal albumin absorption in physiology and pathology. Kidney Int. 2006; 69: 440-449.
27. Strutz F.M.: EMT and proteinuria as progression factors. Kidney Int. 2009; 75: 475-81.
28. Eijkelkamp W.B., Zhang Z., Remuzzi G. et al.: Albuminuria is a target for renoprotective therapy independent from blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy: post hoc analysis from the Reduction of Endpoints in NIDDM with the Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan (RENAAL) trial. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007; 18: 1540-1546.
29. Brown M.J., Palmer C.R., Castaigne A. et al.: Morbidity and mortality in patients randomised to double-blind treatment with a long-acting calcium-channel blocker or diuretic in the International Nifedipine GITS study: Intervention as a Goal in Hypertension Treatment (INSIGHT). Lancet 2000; 356: 366-372.
30. Grimm R.H. Jr., Svendsen K.H., Kasiske B. et al.: Proteinuria is a risk factor for mortality over 10 years of follow-up. MRFIT Research Group. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Kidney Int. Suppl. 1997; 63: S10-S14.
31. Jensen J.S., Feldt-Rasmussen B., Strandgaard S. et al.: Arterial hypertension, microalbuminuria, and risk of ischemic heart disease. Hypertension 2000; 35: 898-903.
32. Gerstein H.C., Yusuf S., Mann J.F.E. et al.: Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 2000; 355: 253-259.
33. Mann J.F.E., Gerstein H.C., Yi Q.L. et al.: Development of renal disease in people at high cardiovascular risk: results of the HOPE randomized study. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2003; 14: 641-647.
34. Koomans H.A., Blankestijn P.J., Joles J.A.: Sympathetic hyperactivity in chronic renal failure: a wake-up call. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2004; 15: 524-537.
35. Amman K., Wanner C., Ritz E.: Cross-talk between the kidney and the cardiovascular system. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2006; 17: 2112-2119.
36. Go A.S., Chertow G.M., Fan D. et al.: Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 1296-1305.
37. Anavekar N.S., McMurray J.J., Velazquez E.J. et al.: Relation between renal dysfunction and cardiovascular outcomes after myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 1285-1295.
38. Vanholder R., Massy Z., Argiles A. et al. (European Uremic Toxin Work Group): Chronic kidney disease as cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2005; 20: 1048-1056.
39. Epstein M.: Aldosterone receptor blockade and the role of eplerenone: evolving perspectives. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2003; 18: 1984-1992.
40. Hostetter T.H., Ibrahim H.N.: Aldosterone in chronic kidney disease. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2003; 14: 2395-2401.
41. Reams G.P., Lau A., Bauer J.H.: Effect of benazepril monotherapy in subjects with hypertension associated with renal dysfunction. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1989; 29: 609-614.
42. Maschio G., Alberti D., Janin G. et al.: Effect of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor benazepril on the progression of chronic renal insufficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996; 334: 939-945.
43. Locatelli F., Del Vecchio L.: How long can dialysis be postponed by low protein diet and ACE inhibitors? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 1999; 14: 1360-1364.
44. Hou F.F., Zhang X., Zhang G.H. et al.: Efficacy and safety of benazepril for advanced chronic renal insufficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 354: 131-140.
45. Hebert L.A.: Optimizing ACE-inhibitor therapy for chronic renal failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 354: 189-191.
46. Jaber B.L., Madias N.E.: Benazepril for advanced chronic renal insufficiency. Letter to the Editor. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 354: 1530.
47. Coppo R., Peruzzi L., Amore A. et al.: IgACE: a placebo-controlled, randomized trial of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in children and young people with IgA nephropathy and moderate proteinuria. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007; 18: 1880-1888.
48. Chen X., Qiu Q., Tang L. et al.: Effect of co-administration of urokinase and benazepril on severe IgA nephropathy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2004; 19: 852-857.
49. Barnett A.H., Bain S.C., Bouter P. et al.: Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 1952-1961.
50. Mann J.F., Schmieder R.E., McQueen M. et al. (ONTARGET investigators): Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 2008; 372: 547-553.
51. Strippoli G.F., Craig M., Schena F.P., Craig J.C.: Antihypertensive agents for primary prevention of diabetic nephropathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2005; 16: 3081-3091.
52. Shoda J., Kanno Y., Suzuki H.: A five-year comparison of the renal protective effects pf angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensi receptor blockers in patients with non-diabetic nephropathy. Intern. Med. 2006; 45: 193-198.
53. Bakris G.L., Toto R.D., McCullough P.A. et al.: Effect of different ACE inhibitor combinations on albuminuria: results of the GUARD study. Kidney Int. 2008; 73: 1303-1309.
54. Jamerson K., Weber M.A., Bakris G.L. et al.: Benazepril plus amlodypine or hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension in high-risk patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 359: 2417-2428.
55. Liu X.P., Pang Y.J., Zhu W.W. et al.: Benazepril, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, alleviates renal injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats by inhibiting advanced glycation end-product-mediated pathways. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2009; 36: 287-296.
56. Kunz R., Wolbers M., Glass T., Mann J.F.: The COOPERATE trial: a letter of concern. Lancet 2008; 371: 1575-1576.
57. Kunz R., Friedrich C., Wolbers M., Mann J.F.: Meta-analysis: effect of monotherapy and combination therapy with inhibitors of the renin angiotensin system on proteinuria in renal disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 2008; 148: 30-48.
58. Rutkowski P., Tylicki L., Renke M. et al.: Low-dose dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in patients with primary glomerulonephritis. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2004; 43: 260-268.
59. Renke M., Tylicki L., Rutkowski P., Wojnarowski K., Lysiak-Szydlowska W., Rutkowski B.: Low-dose dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system improves tubular status in non-diabetic proteinuric patients. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 2005; 39: 511-517.
60. MacKinnon M., Shurraw S., Akbari A. et al.: Combination therapy with an angiotensin receptor blocker and an ACE inhibitor in proteinuric renal disease: a systematic review of the efficacy and safety data. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2006; 48: 8-20.
2. Friedman E.A., Friedman A.L., Eggers P.: End-stage renal disease in diabetic persons: is the pandemic subsiding? Kidney Int. 2007; 70: S51-S54.
3. Friedman E.A., Friedman A.L.: Is there really good news about pandemic diabetic nephropathy? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2007; 22: 681-683.
4. Thomas M.C., Atkins R.C.: Blood pressure lowering for the prevention and treatment of diabetic kidney disease. Drugs 2006; 66: 2213-2234.
5. Michielsen P.: In memoriam ‘analgesic nephropathy’ (circa 1972-2006). Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2007; 22: 999-1001.
6. Morgera S., Schneider M., Neumayer H.H.: Long-term outcomes after acute kidney injury. Crit. Care Med. 2008; 36 (4 Suppl): S193-S197.
7. Debelle F.D., Vanherweghem J.L., Nortier J.L.: Aristolochic acid nephropathy: a worldwide problem. Kidney Int. 2008; 74: 158-169.
8. Amirlak I., Amirlak B.: Haemolytic uraemic syndrome: an overview. Nephrology 2006; 11: 213-218.
9. Reiss G., Kunz P., Koin D., Keeffe E.B.: Escherichia coli O157:H7 infection in nursing homes: review of literature and report of recent outbreak. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2006; 54: 680-684 (Review).
10. Sarnak M.J., Levey A.S., Schoolwerth A.C. et al.: Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: a statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, Epidemiology and Prevention. Hypertension 2003; 42: 1050-1065.
11. Wetzels J.F., Kiemeney L.A., Swinkels D. et al.: Age- and gender-specific reference values of estimated GFR in Caucasians: the Nijmegen Biomedical Study. Kidney Int. 2007; 72: 632-637.
12. Król E., Rutkowski B., Czarniak P. et al.: Early Detection of Chronic Kidney Disease: Results of the PolNef Study. Am. J. Nephrol. 2008; 29: 264-273.
13. Rutkowski B., Król E.: Epidemiology of chronic kidney disease in Central and Eastern Europe. Blood Purif. 2008; 26: 381-385.
14. Hoy W.E., Bertram J.F., Denton R.D., Zimanyi M., Samuel T., Hughson M.D.: Nephron number, glomerular volume, renal disease and hypertension. Curr. Opin. Nephrol. Hypertens. 2008; 17: 258-265.
15. Brenner B.M.: Remission of renal disease: recounting the challenge, acquiring the goal. J. Clin. Invest. 2004; 10: 1753-1758.
16. Navar L.G.: The intrarenal renin-angiotensin system in hypertension. Kidney Int. 2004; 65: 1522-1532.
17. Noronha I.L., Fujihara C.K., Zatz R.: The inflammatory component in progressive renal disease--are interventions possible? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2002; 17: 363-368.
18. Suzuki Y., Ruiz-Ortega M., Gomez-Guerro C. et al.: Angiotensin II, the immune system and renal diseases: another road for RAS? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2003; 18: 1423-1426.
19. Liu Y.: Epithelial to mesenchymal transition in renal fibrogenesis: pathologic significance, molecular mechanism, and therapeutic intervention. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2004; 15: 1-12.
20. Gruden G., Setti G., Hayward A. et al.: Mechanical stretch induces monocyte chemoattractant activity via an NF-kappaB-dependent monocyte chemoattractant protein-1-mediated pathway in human mesangial cells: inhibition by rosiglitazone. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2005; 16: 688-696.
21. Riser B.L., Varani J., Cortes P. et al.: Cyclic stretching of mesangial cells up-regulates intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and leukocyte adherence: a possible new mechanism for glomerulosclerosis. Am. J. Pathol. 2001; 158: 11-17.
22. Durvasula R.V., Petermann A.T., Hiromura K. et al.: Activation of a local tissue angiotensin system in podocytes by mechanical strain. Kidney Int. 2004; 65: 30-39.
23. Shackland S.J.: The podocyte’s response to injury: role in proteinuria and glomerulosclerosis. Kidney Int. 2006; 69: 2131-2147.
24. Ruggenenti P., Perna A., Mosconi L., Pisoni R., Remuzzi G.: Urinary protein excretion rate is the best independent predictor of ESRF in nondiabetic proteinuric chronic nephropathies. Kidney Int. 1998; 53: 1209-1216.
25. Ishani A., Grandits G.A., Grimm R.H. et al.: Association of single measurements of dipstick proteinuria, estimated glomerular filtration rate, and hematocrit with 25-year incidence of end-stage renal disease in the multiple risk factor intervention trial. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2006; 17: 1444-1452.
26. Brin H., Christensen E.: Renal albumin absorption in physiology and pathology. Kidney Int. 2006; 69: 440-449.
27. Strutz F.M.: EMT and proteinuria as progression factors. Kidney Int. 2009; 75: 475-81.
28. Eijkelkamp W.B., Zhang Z., Remuzzi G. et al.: Albuminuria is a target for renoprotective therapy independent from blood pressure in patients with type 2 diabetic nephropathy: post hoc analysis from the Reduction of Endpoints in NIDDM with the Angiotensin II Antagonist Losartan (RENAAL) trial. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007; 18: 1540-1546.
29. Brown M.J., Palmer C.R., Castaigne A. et al.: Morbidity and mortality in patients randomised to double-blind treatment with a long-acting calcium-channel blocker or diuretic in the International Nifedipine GITS study: Intervention as a Goal in Hypertension Treatment (INSIGHT). Lancet 2000; 356: 366-372.
30. Grimm R.H. Jr., Svendsen K.H., Kasiske B. et al.: Proteinuria is a risk factor for mortality over 10 years of follow-up. MRFIT Research Group. Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial. Kidney Int. Suppl. 1997; 63: S10-S14.
31. Jensen J.S., Feldt-Rasmussen B., Strandgaard S. et al.: Arterial hypertension, microalbuminuria, and risk of ischemic heart disease. Hypertension 2000; 35: 898-903.
32. Gerstein H.C., Yusuf S., Mann J.F.E. et al.: Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators. Effects of ramipril on cardiovascular and microvascular outcomes in people with diabetes mellitus: results of the HOPE study and MICRO-HOPE substudy. Lancet 2000; 355: 253-259.
33. Mann J.F.E., Gerstein H.C., Yi Q.L. et al.: Development of renal disease in people at high cardiovascular risk: results of the HOPE randomized study. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2003; 14: 641-647.
34. Koomans H.A., Blankestijn P.J., Joles J.A.: Sympathetic hyperactivity in chronic renal failure: a wake-up call. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2004; 15: 524-537.
35. Amman K., Wanner C., Ritz E.: Cross-talk between the kidney and the cardiovascular system. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2006; 17: 2112-2119.
36. Go A.S., Chertow G.M., Fan D. et al.: Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 1296-1305.
37. Anavekar N.S., McMurray J.J., Velazquez E.J. et al.: Relation between renal dysfunction and cardiovascular outcomes after myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 1285-1295.
38. Vanholder R., Massy Z., Argiles A. et al. (European Uremic Toxin Work Group): Chronic kidney disease as cause of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2005; 20: 1048-1056.
39. Epstein M.: Aldosterone receptor blockade and the role of eplerenone: evolving perspectives. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2003; 18: 1984-1992.
40. Hostetter T.H., Ibrahim H.N.: Aldosterone in chronic kidney disease. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2003; 14: 2395-2401.
41. Reams G.P., Lau A., Bauer J.H.: Effect of benazepril monotherapy in subjects with hypertension associated with renal dysfunction. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1989; 29: 609-614.
42. Maschio G., Alberti D., Janin G. et al.: Effect of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor benazepril on the progression of chronic renal insufficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996; 334: 939-945.
43. Locatelli F., Del Vecchio L.: How long can dialysis be postponed by low protein diet and ACE inhibitors? Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 1999; 14: 1360-1364.
44. Hou F.F., Zhang X., Zhang G.H. et al.: Efficacy and safety of benazepril for advanced chronic renal insufficiency. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 354: 131-140.
45. Hebert L.A.: Optimizing ACE-inhibitor therapy for chronic renal failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 354: 189-191.
46. Jaber B.L., Madias N.E.: Benazepril for advanced chronic renal insufficiency. Letter to the Editor. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006; 354: 1530.
47. Coppo R., Peruzzi L., Amore A. et al.: IgACE: a placebo-controlled, randomized trial of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in children and young people with IgA nephropathy and moderate proteinuria. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2007; 18: 1880-1888.
48. Chen X., Qiu Q., Tang L. et al.: Effect of co-administration of urokinase and benazepril on severe IgA nephropathy. Nephrol. Dial. Transplant. 2004; 19: 852-857.
49. Barnett A.H., Bain S.C., Bouter P. et al.: Angiotensin-receptor blockade versus converting-enzyme inhibition in type 2 diabetes and nephropathy. N. Engl. J. Med. 2004; 351: 1952-1961.
50. Mann J.F., Schmieder R.E., McQueen M. et al. (ONTARGET investigators): Renal outcomes with telmisartan, ramipril, or both, in people at high vascular risk (the ONTARGET study): a multicentre, randomised, double-blind, controlled trial. Lancet 2008; 372: 547-553.
51. Strippoli G.F., Craig M., Schena F.P., Craig J.C.: Antihypertensive agents for primary prevention of diabetic nephropathy. J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. 2005; 16: 3081-3091.
52. Shoda J., Kanno Y., Suzuki H.: A five-year comparison of the renal protective effects pf angiotensin- converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensi receptor blockers in patients with non-diabetic nephropathy. Intern. Med. 2006; 45: 193-198.
53. Bakris G.L., Toto R.D., McCullough P.A. et al.: Effect of different ACE inhibitor combinations on albuminuria: results of the GUARD study. Kidney Int. 2008; 73: 1303-1309.
54. Jamerson K., Weber M.A., Bakris G.L. et al.: Benazepril plus amlodypine or hydrochlorothiazide for hypertension in high-risk patients. N. Engl. J. Med. 2008; 359: 2417-2428.
55. Liu X.P., Pang Y.J., Zhu W.W. et al.: Benazepril, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor, alleviates renal injury in spontaneously hypertensive rats by inhibiting advanced glycation end-product-mediated pathways. Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 2009; 36: 287-296.
56. Kunz R., Wolbers M., Glass T., Mann J.F.: The COOPERATE trial: a letter of concern. Lancet 2008; 371: 1575-1576.
57. Kunz R., Friedrich C., Wolbers M., Mann J.F.: Meta-analysis: effect of monotherapy and combination therapy with inhibitors of the renin angiotensin system on proteinuria in renal disease. Ann. Intern. Med. 2008; 148: 30-48.
58. Rutkowski P., Tylicki L., Renke M. et al.: Low-dose dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system in patients with primary glomerulonephritis. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2004; 43: 260-268.
59. Renke M., Tylicki L., Rutkowski P., Wojnarowski K., Lysiak-Szydlowska W., Rutkowski B.: Low-dose dual blockade of the renin-angiotensin system improves tubular status in non-diabetic proteinuric patients. Scand. J. Urol. Nephrol. 2005; 39: 511-517.
60. MacKinnon M., Shurraw S., Akbari A. et al.: Combination therapy with an angiotensin receptor blocker and an ACE inhibitor in proteinuric renal disease: a systematic review of the efficacy and safety data. Am. J. Kidney Dis. 2006; 48: 8-20.