Executive dysfunctions in patients with brain damage Review article
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Published:
Dec 31, 2012
Keywords:
executive dysfunctions, brain damage
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Abstract
Executive functions are relevant to initiation, programming and controlling of goal-directed human behavior. They represent the highest level of its hierarchical organization. Despite the widespread use, the theoretical construct of an executive system, its elements and clinical test indicators are not clearly defined. Some self-regulatory, cognitive and metacognitive functions are involved in this system. Functional frontal-subcortical loops are recognized as neuronal substrate of executive functions although their deficits are observed in patients with different locations of brain damage. This can be explained by overlapping of clinical symptoms from different levels of behavior regulation. The essence of psychological assessment and executive dysfunctions therapy is discussed.
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References
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36. Huijbregts S.C., Kalkers N.F., de Sonneville L.M., de Groot V., Polman C.H.: Differences in cognitive impairment of relapsing remitting, secondary, and primary progressive MS. Neurology 2004; 63: 335-339.
37. Golden C.J.: Stroop color and word test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Stoelting, Chicago 1978.
38. Jaworowska A.: Test Sortowania Kart z Wisconsin. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych PTP, Warszawa 2002.
39. Reitan R.M.: The relation of the Trail Making Test to organic brain damage. J. Consult. Psychol. 1955; 19: 393-394.
40. Benton A.L., Hamsher K.: Multiligual aphasia examination. AJA, Iowa City 1989.
41. Shallice T.: Specific impairment of planning. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 1982; 298: 199-209.
42. Wilson B.A., Alderman N., Burgess P., Emslie H., Evans J.J.: The Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. Thames Valley Test Company, Flempton, UK 1996.
43. Gioia G., Isquith P., Guy S., Kenworthy L.: Behavior rating inventory of executive functions. Psychological Assessment Resources, Lutz, FL 2000.
44. Downes J., Evenden J., Morris R., Oven A., Robbins T., Roberts A., Sahakian B.: Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery: CANTABeclipse, version 3. Cambridge Cognition Limited, Cambridge 2006.
45. Delis D., Kaplan E., Kramer N.: Delis–Kaplan executive function system. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL 2001.
46. Grace J., Malloy P.F.: Frontal system behavioral scale. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL 2002.
47. Jodzio K.: Neuropsychologia intencjonalnego działania. Koncepcje funkcji wykonawczych. Wydawnictwo Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa 2008: 242-289.
48. Ballard C., Stephens S., Kenny R.A., Kalaria R., Tovee M., O’Brien J.: Profile of neuropsychological deficits in older stroke survivors without dementia. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2003; 16: 52-6.
49. Cicerone K., Levin H., Malec J., Stuss D., Whyte J.: Cognitive Rehabilitation Interventions for Executive Function: Moving from Bench to Bedside in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury. J. Cog. Neurosci. 2006; 18(7): 1212-1222.
50. Levine B., Robertson I.H., Clare L., Carter G., Hong J., Wilson B.A., Duncan J., Stuss D.T.: Rehabilitation of executive functioning: An experimental-clinical validation of goal management training. J. Inter. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2000; 6: 299-312.
51. Fasotti L., Kovacs F., Eling P.A., Brouver W.H.: Time pressure management as a compensatory strategy training after closed head injury. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 2000; 10: 47-55.
52. Ownsworth T.L., McFarland K., Young R.M.: Self-awareness and psychosocial functioning following acquired brain injury: An evaluation of a group support programme. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 2000; 10: 465-484.
53. Gordon W.A., Cantor J., Ashman T., Brawn M.: Treatment of post-TBI executive dysfunction: application of theory to clinical practice. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2006; 21: 156-67.
54. Cicerone K.D., Dahlberg C., Malec J.F., Langenbahn D.M., Felicetti T., Kneipp S., Ellmo W. et al.: Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 1998 through 2002. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 2005; 86: 1681-92.
55. Chung C.S.Y., Pollock A., Campbell T., Durward B.R., Hagen S.: Cognitive rehabilitation for executive dysfunction in patients with stroke or other adult non-progressive acquired brain damage. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, 3: CD008391.
2. Cummings J.L., Miller B.L.: Conceptual and Clinical Aspects of the Frontal Lobes. W: The Human Frontal Lobes. Miller B.L., Cummings J.L. (red.). The Guilford Press, New York 2007: 12-43.
3. Godefroy O., Stuss D.: Dysexecutive syndromes. W: The behavioral and cognitive neurology of stroke. Godefroy O., Bogousslavsky J. (red.). Cambridge University Press, New York 2007: 369-406.
4. Ardila A.: On the evolutionary origins of executive functions. Brain Cogn. 2008; 68: 92-99.
5. Shannon C.R., Thomas-Duckwitz C.: Executive functioning. W: Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Vol. 2. Kreutzer J.S., DeLuca J., Caplan B. (red.). Springer, New York 2011: 991-997.
6. Stuss D.: New Approaches to Prefrontal Lobe Testing. W: The Human Frontal Lobes. Miller B., Cummings J.L. (red.). The Guilford Press, New York 2007: 292-305.
7. Ardila A., Surloff C.: Dysexecutive syndromes. Medlink Neurology. Arbor Publishing Co., San Diego 2008.
8. Jurado M.B., Roselli M.: The elusive nature of executive functions: a review of our current understanding. Neuropsychol. Rev. 2007; 17: 213-233.
9. Kramer J.H., Krueger C.E., Sinha L.: Executive Abilities: Methods and Instruments for Neurobehavioral Evaluation and research. W: Encyclopedia of Clinical Neuropsychology. Vol. 2. Kreutzer J.S., DeLuca J., Caplan B. (red.). Springer, New York 2011: 987-997.
10. Duncan J., Emslie H., Williams P., Johnson R., Freer C.: Intelligence and the frontal lobes: The organization of goal-directed behavior. Cognit. Psychol. 1996; 30: 257-303.
11. Kimberg D., D’Esposito M., Farah M.: Cognitive functions in the prefrontal cortex – working memory and executive control. Curr. Direct. Psychol. Sci. 1997; 6: 185-192.
12. De Frias C., Dixon R., Strauss E.: Structure of tour executive functioning test in healthy older adults. Neuropsychology 2006; 20: 206-214.
13. Baddeley A.: Exploring the central executive. Quarterly J. Exp. Psychol. 1996; 49A: 5-28.
14. Stuss D.T., Alexander M.: Executive functions and the frontal lobes: A conceptual view. Psychol. Research 2000; 63: 289-298.
15. Miyake A., Friedman N., Emerson M., Witzki A., Howerter A.: The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contribution to complex „frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognit. Psychol. 2000; 41: 49-100.
16. Gazzaley A., D’Esposito M.: Unifying Prefrontal Cortex Function. Executive Control, Neural Networks, and Top-down Modulation. W: The Human Frontal Lobes. Miller B., Cummings J.L. (red.). The Guilford Press, New York 2007: 187-206.
17. Kaufmann L., Koppelstaetter F., Delazer M., Siedentopf C., Rhomberg P., Golaszewski S., Felber S., Ischebeck A.: Neural correlates of distance and congruity effects in a numerical Stroop task: An event-related fMRI study. Neuroimage 2005; 15: 888-898.
18. Lie C., Specht K., Marshall J., Fink G.: Using fMRI to decompose the neural processes underlying the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test. Neuroimage 2006; 15: 1038-1049.
19. Wagner G., Kock K., Reichenbach J., Sauer H., Schlosser R.: The special involvement of the rostrolateral prefrontal cortex in planning abilities: An event-related fMRI study with the Tower of London paradigm. Neuropsychologia 2006; 44: 2337-2347.
20. Hirshorn E.A., Thompson-Schill S.L.: Role of the left inferior frontal gyrus in covert word retrieval: neural correlates of switching during verbal fluency. Neuropsychologia 2006; 44: 2547-2557.
21. Stuss D.T., Alexander M.P., Floden D., Binns M.A., Levine B., McIntosh A.R.: Fractionation and localization of distinct frontal lobe processes: Evidence from focal lesions in humans. W: Principles of frontal lobe function. Stuss D.T., Knight R.T. (red.). Oxford University Press, New York 2002: 392-407.
22. Collette T., van der Linden M., Laureys S., Delfiore G., Degueldre C., Luxen A.: Exploring the unity and diversity of the neural substrates of executive functioning. Hum. Brain Mapp. 2005; 25: 409-423.
23. Lewis S.J., Dove A., Robbins T., Barker R.A., Owen A.M.: Striatal contribution to working memory. A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in humans. Eur. J. Neurosci. 2004; 19: 755-760.
24. Kassubeck J., Juengling F.D., Ecker D., Landwehrmeyer G.B.: Thalamic atrophy in Huntington’s disease co-varies with cognitive performance. A morphometric MRI analysis. Cereb. Cortex 2005; 15: 846-853.
25. Baddeley A.: Working memory. Oxford University Press, Oxford 1986.
26. Marin R.S.: Apathy: concept, syndrome, neural mechanisms, and treatment. Semin. Clin. Neuropsychiatry 1996; 1(4): 304-314.
27. Laplane D., Dubois B.: Auto-Activation deficit: a basal ganglia related syndrome. Mov. Dis. 2001; 16(5): 810-814.
28. Rao S.M., Leo G.J., Bernardin L., Unverzagt F.: Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. Frequency, patterns and prediction. Neurology 1991; 41: 685-691.
29. Nebel K., Wiese H., Seyfarth J., Gizewski E.R., Stude P., Diener H.C., Limmroth V.: Activity of attention related structures in multiple sclerosis. Brain Res. 2007; 1151: 150-160.
30. Rovaris M., Filippi M., Falautano M., Minicucci L., Rocca M.A., Martinelli V., Comi G.: Relation between MR abnormalities and patterns of cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis. Neurology 1998; 50: 1601-1608.
31. Foong J., Rozewicz L., Quaghebeur G., Davie C.A., Kartsounis L.D., Thompson A.J., Miller D.H., Ron A.: Executive function in multiple sclerosis. The role of frontal lobe pathology. Brain 1997; 120: 15-26.
32. Sperling R.A., Guttmann C.R., Hohol M.J., Warfield S.K., Jakab M., Parente M., Diamond E.L., Daffner K.R., Olek M.J., Orav E.J., Kikinis R., Jolesz F.A., Weiner H.: Regional magnetic resonance imaging lesion burden and cognitive function in multiple sclerosis: a longitudinal study. Arch. Neurol. 2001; 58: 115-121.
33. Ranjeva J.P., Audoin B., Au Duong M.V., Ibarrola D., Confort-Gouny S., Malikova I., Suolier E., Viout P., Ali-Cherif A., Pelletier J., Cozzone P.: Local tissue damage assessed with statistical mapping analysis of brain magnetization transfer ratio: relationship with functional status of patients in the earliest stage of multiple sclerosis. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2005; 26: 119-112.
34. Piras M.R., Magnano I., Canu E.D., Paulus K.S., Satta W.M., Soddu A., Conti M., Achene A., Solinas G., Aiello I.: Longitudinal study of cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: neuropsychological, neuroradiological, and neurophysiological findings. J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry 2003; 74: 878-885.
35. Nelson F., Datta S., Garcia N., Rozario N.L., Perez F., Cutter G., Narayana P.A., Wolinsky J.S.: Intracortical lesions by 3T magnetic resonance imaging and correlation with cognitive impairment in multiple sclerosis. Mult. Scler. 2011; 11: 1122-1129.
36. Huijbregts S.C., Kalkers N.F., de Sonneville L.M., de Groot V., Polman C.H.: Differences in cognitive impairment of relapsing remitting, secondary, and primary progressive MS. Neurology 2004; 63: 335-339.
37. Golden C.J.: Stroop color and word test: A manual for clinical and experimental uses. Stoelting, Chicago 1978.
38. Jaworowska A.: Test Sortowania Kart z Wisconsin. Pracownia Testów Psychologicznych PTP, Warszawa 2002.
39. Reitan R.M.: The relation of the Trail Making Test to organic brain damage. J. Consult. Psychol. 1955; 19: 393-394.
40. Benton A.L., Hamsher K.: Multiligual aphasia examination. AJA, Iowa City 1989.
41. Shallice T.: Specific impairment of planning. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B. Biol. Sci. 1982; 298: 199-209.
42. Wilson B.A., Alderman N., Burgess P., Emslie H., Evans J.J.: The Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. Thames Valley Test Company, Flempton, UK 1996.
43. Gioia G., Isquith P., Guy S., Kenworthy L.: Behavior rating inventory of executive functions. Psychological Assessment Resources, Lutz, FL 2000.
44. Downes J., Evenden J., Morris R., Oven A., Robbins T., Roberts A., Sahakian B.: Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery: CANTABeclipse, version 3. Cambridge Cognition Limited, Cambridge 2006.
45. Delis D., Kaplan E., Kramer N.: Delis–Kaplan executive function system. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL 2001.
46. Grace J., Malloy P.F.: Frontal system behavioral scale. Psychological Assessment Resources, Odessa, FL 2002.
47. Jodzio K.: Neuropsychologia intencjonalnego działania. Koncepcje funkcji wykonawczych. Wydawnictwo Naukowe SCHOLAR, Warszawa 2008: 242-289.
48. Ballard C., Stephens S., Kenny R.A., Kalaria R., Tovee M., O’Brien J.: Profile of neuropsychological deficits in older stroke survivors without dementia. Dement. Geriatr. Cogn. Disord. 2003; 16: 52-6.
49. Cicerone K., Levin H., Malec J., Stuss D., Whyte J.: Cognitive Rehabilitation Interventions for Executive Function: Moving from Bench to Bedside in Patients with Traumatic Brain Injury. J. Cog. Neurosci. 2006; 18(7): 1212-1222.
50. Levine B., Robertson I.H., Clare L., Carter G., Hong J., Wilson B.A., Duncan J., Stuss D.T.: Rehabilitation of executive functioning: An experimental-clinical validation of goal management training. J. Inter. Neuropsychol. Soc. 2000; 6: 299-312.
51. Fasotti L., Kovacs F., Eling P.A., Brouver W.H.: Time pressure management as a compensatory strategy training after closed head injury. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 2000; 10: 47-55.
52. Ownsworth T.L., McFarland K., Young R.M.: Self-awareness and psychosocial functioning following acquired brain injury: An evaluation of a group support programme. Neuropsychol. Rehabil. 2000; 10: 465-484.
53. Gordon W.A., Cantor J., Ashman T., Brawn M.: Treatment of post-TBI executive dysfunction: application of theory to clinical practice. J. Head Trauma Rehabil. 2006; 21: 156-67.
54. Cicerone K.D., Dahlberg C., Malec J.F., Langenbahn D.M., Felicetti T., Kneipp S., Ellmo W. et al.: Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 1998 through 2002. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 2005; 86: 1681-92.
55. Chung C.S.Y., Pollock A., Campbell T., Durward B.R., Hagen S.: Cognitive rehabilitation for executive dysfunction in patients with stroke or other adult non-progressive acquired brain damage. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, 3: CD008391.