Drugs to treat insomnia Review article
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Published:
Dec 31, 2013
Keywords:
insomnia, insomnia drugs
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Abstract
Changing your sleep habits and reducing any underlying causes of insomnia as well as taking adequate insomnia drugs can restore restful sleep for many patients. If promoting sleep hygiene – simple steps such as keeping the same bedtime and arising time – doesn’t work, one may recommend medications to help with relaxation and sleep. Below is the list of common medications used to treat or reduce the symptoms of insomnia. The most recommended at present are Z-drugs.
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References
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4. Sławiński B. Wynalazca nad wynalazcami. Alma Mater 2007; 93: 54-57.
5. Johnson EO, Roehrs T, Roth T, Breslau N. Epidemiology of alcohol and medication as aids to sleep in early adulthood. Sleep 1998; 21: 178-186.
6. Mendelson WB. Human sleep: research and clinical care. Plenum Press, New York 1987.
7. Harrison N, Mendelson W, de Wit H. Barbiturates. 4th generation of progress, 1998, CD/ROM, W: Watson SJ (red). PsyLippincott-Raven, ACNP/Philadelphia 1998.
8. Macdonald RL, Rogers CJ, Twman RE. Barbiturate regulation of kinetic properties of the GABA-A receptor channel of mouse spinal neurones in culture. J Physiol 1989; 417: 483-500.
9. Study RE, Barker JL. Diazepam and (–)-pentobarbital: fluctuation analysis reveals different mechanisms for potentiation of gamma-aminobutyric acid responses in cultured neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 7180-7184.
10. Sanger DJ. The pharmacology and mechanisms of action of new generation, non-benzodiazepine hypnotic agents. CNS Drugs 2004; 18: 9-15.
11. Krystal AD, Walsh JK, Laska E et al. Sustained efficacy of eszopiclone over six months of nightly treatment: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study in adults with chronic insomnia. Sleep 2003; 26: 793-799.
12. Rudolf M, Geddes DM, Turner JA et al. Depression of central respiratory drive by nitrazepam. Thorax 1978; 33: 97-100.
13. Dolly FR, Block AJ. Effect of flurazepam on sleep-disordered breathing and nocturnal oxygen desaturation in asymptomatic patients. Am J Med 1982; 73: 239-243.
14. Mendelson WB, Roth T, Cassela J et al. The treatment of chronic insomnia: drug indications, chronic use and abuse liability. Summary of a 2001 New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit meeting symposium. Sleep Med Rev 2004; 8: 7-17.
15. Buysse DJ. Clinical Pharmacology of Other Drugs Used as Hypnotics. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Elsevier; St. Louis 2011: rozdział 43, sekcja 6.
16. Kupfer DJ, Spiker DG, Coble P et al. Amitriptyline and EEG sleep in depressed patients, I: drug effect. Sleep 1978; 1: 149-159.
17. Dunleavy DLF, Brezinova V, Oswald I et al. Changes during weeks in effects of tricyclic drugs on the human sleep brain. Br J Psychiatry 1972; 120: 663-672.
18. Roth T, Zorick F, Wittig R et al. The effects of doxepin HCl on sleep and depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1982; 43: 366-368.
19. Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Hoch CC et al. Longitudinal effects of nortriptyline on EEG sleep and the likelihood of recurrence in elderly depressed patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 14: 243-252.
20. Hartmann E, Cravens J. The effects of long term administration of psychotropic drugs on human sleep: III. The effects of amitriptyline. Psychopharmacologia 1973; 33: 185-202.
21. Gillin JC, Wyatt RJ, Fram D. The relationship between changes in REM sleep and clinical improvement in depressed patients treated with amitriptyline. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1978; 59: 267-272.
22. Baldessarini RJ. Drugs and the treatment of anxiety disorders: depression and anxiety disorders. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001: 447-483.
23. Golden RN, Dawkins K, Nicholas L. Trazodone and nefazodone. W: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C (red.). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of psychopharmacology. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004: 315-325.
24. Montgomery I, Oswald I, Morgan K et al. Trazodone enhances sleep in subjective quality but not in objective duration. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 16: 139-144.
25. Saletu-Zyhlarz G, Abu-Bakr M, Anderer P et al. Insomnia in depression: differences in objective and subjective sleep awakening quality to normal controls and acute effects of trazodone. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26: 249-260.
26. Scharf MB, Sachais BA. Sleep laboratory evaluation of the effects and efficacy of trazodone in depressed insomniac patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 13-17.
27. Mouret J, Lemoine P, Minuit MP et al. Effects of trazodone on the sleep of depressed subjects – a polygraphic study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1988; 95: 37-43.
28. Le BO, Murphy JR, Staner L et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of trazodone in alcohol post-withdrawal syndrome: polysomnographic and clinical evaluations. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 23: 377-383.
29. Walsh JK, Erman M, Erwin CW et al. Subjective hypnotic efficacy of trazodone and zolpidem in DSMIII-R primary insomnia. Hum Psychopharmacol 1998; 13: 191-198.
30. Thompson JW, Ware MR, Blashfield BK. Psychotropic medication and priapism: a comprehensive review. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 430-433.
31. De Boer T. The pharmacologic profile of mirtazapine. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57 (supl 4): 19-25.
32. Caccia S. Metabolism of newer antidepressants. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 34: 281-302.
33. Nelson JC. Tricyclic and tetracyclic drugs. W: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C (red.). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of psychopharmacology. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC 2004: 207-230.
34. DeMuro RL, Nafziger AN, Blask DE et al. The absolute bioavailability of oral melatonin. J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 40: 781-784.
35. Karim A, Tolbert D, Cao C. Disposition kinetics and tolerance of escalating single doses of ramelteon, a high-affinity MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptor agonist indicated for treatment of insomnia. J Clin Pharmacol 2006; 46: 140-148.
36. Andrade C, Srihari BS, Reddy KP, Chandramma L. Melatonin in medically ill patients with insomnia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 41-45.
37. MacFarlane JG, Cleghorn JM, Brown GM et al. The effects of exogenous melatonin on the total sleep time and daytime alertness of chronic insomniacs: a preliminary study. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 30: 371-376.
38. James SP, Sack DA, Rosenthal NE. Melatonin administration in insomnia. Neuropsychopharmacology 1990; 3: 19-23.
39. Ellis CM, Lemmens G, Parkes JD. Melatonin and insomnia. J Sleep Res 1996; 5: 61-65.
40. Baskett JJ, Broad JB, Wood PC et al. Does melatonin improve sleep in older people? A randomized crossover trial. Age Ageing 2003; 32: 164-170.
41. Brown NJ, Roberts LJ. Histamine, bradykinin, and their antagonists. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw- Hill, New York 2001: 645-667.
42. Buysse DJ. Drugs affecting sleep, sleepiness and performance. W: Monk TH (red.). Sleep, sleepiness, and performance. Wiley, New York 1991: 249-306.
43. Basu R, Dodge H, Stoehr GP et al. Sedative-hypnotic use of diphenhydramine in a rural, older adult, community-based cohort: effects on cognition. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2003; 11: 205-213.
44. Koppel C, Tenczer J, Ibe K. Poisoning with over-the-counter doxylamine preparations: an evaluation of 109 cases. Hum Toxicol 1987; 6: 355-359.
45. Houghton PJ. The scientific basis for the reputed activity of valerian. J Pharm Pharmacol 1999; 51: 505-512.
46. Leathwood PD, Chauffard F, Heck E et al. Aqueous extract of valerian root (Valeriana officinalis L.) improves sleep quality in man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1982; 17: 65-71.
47. Lindahl O, Lindwall L. Double blind study of a valerian preparation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1989; 32: 1065-1066.
48. Schulz H, Stolz C, Muller J. The effect of valerian extract on sleep polygraphy in poor sleepers: a pilot study. Pharmacopsychiatry 1994; 27: 147-151.
49. Donath F, Quispe S, Diefenbach K et al. Critical evaluation of the effect of valerian extract on sleep structure and sleep quality. Pharmacopsychiatry 2000; 33: 47-53.
50. McNamara JO. Pharmacotherapy of the epilepsies. W: Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2006: 501-525.
51. McNamara JO. Drugs effective in the therapy of epilepsies. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001: 521-547.
52. Rose MA, Kam CA. Gabapentin: pharmacology and its use in pain management. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 451-462.
53. Gilron I. Gabapentin and pregabalin for chronic neuropathic and early postsurgical pa. W: Current evidence and future directions. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2007; 20: 456-472.
54. Gajraj NM. Pregabalin: its pharmacology and use in pain management. Anesth Analg 2007; 105: 1805-1815.
55. Tassone DM, Boyce E, Guyer J, Nuzum D. Pregabalin: a novel gamma-aminobutyric acid analogue in the treatment of neuropathic pain, partial-onset seizures, and anxiety disorders. Clin Ther 2007; 29: 26-48.
56. Mathias S, Wetter TC, Steiger A et al. The GABA uptake inhibitor tiagabine promotes slow wave sleep in normal elderly subjects. Neurobiol Aging 2001; 22: 247-253.
57. Harrison NL. Mechanisms of sleep induction by GABAA receptor agonists. J Clin Psychiatry 2007; 68 (supl 5): 6-12.
58. Stahl SM. Essential pharmacology: neuroscientific basis and practical application. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
59. Baldessarini RJ, Tarazi FI. Drugs and the treatment of anxiety disorders: psychosis and mania. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001: 485-520.
60. Baldessarini RJ. Drug therapy of depression and anxiety disorders. W: Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw- Hill, New York 2006: 429-459.
61. Yamashita H, Mori K, Nagao M et al. Influence of aging on the improvement of subjective sleep quality by atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with schizophrenia: comparison of middle-aged and older adults. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005; 13: 377-384.
62. Yamashita H, Mori K, Nagao M et al. Effects of changing from typical to atypical antipsychotic drugs on subjective sleep quality in patients with schizophrenia in a Japanese population. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 1525-1530.
63. Todder D, Caliskan S, Baune BT. Night locomotor activity and quality of sleep in quetiapine-treated patients with depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 26: 638-642.
64. Baune BT, Caliskan S, Todder D. Effects of adjunctive antidepressant therapy with quetiapine on clinical outcome, quality of sleep and daytime motor activity in patients with treatment- resistant depression. Hum Psychopharmacol 2007; 22: 1-9.
65. Vieta E, Calabrese JR, Goikolea JM et al. Quetiapine monotherapy in the treatment of patients with bipolar I or II depression and a rapid-cycling disease course: a randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. Bipolar Disord 2007; 9: 413-425.
66. Sharpley AL, Vassallo CM, Cowen PJ. Olanzapine increases slow-wave sleep: evidence for blockade of central 5-HT2C receptors in vivo. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47: 468-470.
67. Salin-Pascual RJ, Herrera-Estrella M, Galicia-Polo L et al. Olanzapine acute administration in schizophrenic patients increases delta sleep and sleep efficiency. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 46: 141-143.
68. Lindberg N, Virkkunen M, Tani P et al. Effect of a single-dose of olanzapine on sleep in healthy females and males. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 17: 177-184.
69. Sharpley AL, Vassallo CM, Pooley EC. Allelic variation in the 5-HT2C receptor (HT2RC) and the increase in slow wave sleep produced by olanzapine. Psychopathology 2001; 153: 271-272.
70. Gimenez S, Clos S, Romero S et al. Effects of olanzapine, risperidone and haloperidol on sleep after a single oral morning dose in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 190: 507-516.
71. Cohrs S, Rodenbeck A, Guan Z et al. Sleep-promoting properties of quetiapine in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 174: 421-429.
72. Wise MS, Arand DL, Auger RR et al. Treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin. Sleep 2007; 30: 1712-1727.
73. Pardi D, Black J. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate/sodium oxybate: neurobiology, and impact on sleep and wakefulness. CNS Drugs 2006; 20: 993-1018.
74. Lapierre O, Montplaisir J, Lamarre M et al. The effect of gamma- hydroxybutyrate on nocturnal and diurnal sleep of normal subjects: further considerations on REM sleep-triggering mechanisms. Sleep 1990; 13: 24-30.
75. Van Cauter E, Plat L, Scharf MB et al. Simultaneous stimulation of slow-wave sleep and growth hormone secretion by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in normal young men. J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 745-753.
76. Scrima L, Hartman PG, Johnson FH et al. The effects of gamma- hydroxybutyrate on the sleep of narcolepsy patients: a double-blind study. Sleep 1990; 13: 479-490.
77. Scharf MB, Baumann M, Berkowitz DV. The effects of sodium oxybate on clinical symptoms and sleep patterns in patients with fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol 2003; 30: 1070-1074.
78. Garrison M. New development for age-old problems. Sleep Rev 2008; 9: 34-37.
79. Skalski M. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Insomnia. W: Saddichha S (red.). Can’t Sleep? Issues of Being an Insomniac. In-Tech, Rijeka 2012.
2. Mendelson W. Hypnotic Medications: Mechanisms of Action and Pharmacologic Effects. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Elsevier; St. Louis 2011: rozdział 42, sekcja 6.
3. National Sleep Foundation. 1998 Omnibus Sleep in America Poll. National Sleep Foundation, Washington, DC 1998.
4. Sławiński B. Wynalazca nad wynalazcami. Alma Mater 2007; 93: 54-57.
5. Johnson EO, Roehrs T, Roth T, Breslau N. Epidemiology of alcohol and medication as aids to sleep in early adulthood. Sleep 1998; 21: 178-186.
6. Mendelson WB. Human sleep: research and clinical care. Plenum Press, New York 1987.
7. Harrison N, Mendelson W, de Wit H. Barbiturates. 4th generation of progress, 1998, CD/ROM, W: Watson SJ (red). PsyLippincott-Raven, ACNP/Philadelphia 1998.
8. Macdonald RL, Rogers CJ, Twman RE. Barbiturate regulation of kinetic properties of the GABA-A receptor channel of mouse spinal neurones in culture. J Physiol 1989; 417: 483-500.
9. Study RE, Barker JL. Diazepam and (–)-pentobarbital: fluctuation analysis reveals different mechanisms for potentiation of gamma-aminobutyric acid responses in cultured neurons. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1981; 78: 7180-7184.
10. Sanger DJ. The pharmacology and mechanisms of action of new generation, non-benzodiazepine hypnotic agents. CNS Drugs 2004; 18: 9-15.
11. Krystal AD, Walsh JK, Laska E et al. Sustained efficacy of eszopiclone over six months of nightly treatment: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study in adults with chronic insomnia. Sleep 2003; 26: 793-799.
12. Rudolf M, Geddes DM, Turner JA et al. Depression of central respiratory drive by nitrazepam. Thorax 1978; 33: 97-100.
13. Dolly FR, Block AJ. Effect of flurazepam on sleep-disordered breathing and nocturnal oxygen desaturation in asymptomatic patients. Am J Med 1982; 73: 239-243.
14. Mendelson WB, Roth T, Cassela J et al. The treatment of chronic insomnia: drug indications, chronic use and abuse liability. Summary of a 2001 New Clinical Drug Evaluation Unit meeting symposium. Sleep Med Rev 2004; 8: 7-17.
15. Buysse DJ. Clinical Pharmacology of Other Drugs Used as Hypnotics. Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine. Elsevier; St. Louis 2011: rozdział 43, sekcja 6.
16. Kupfer DJ, Spiker DG, Coble P et al. Amitriptyline and EEG sleep in depressed patients, I: drug effect. Sleep 1978; 1: 149-159.
17. Dunleavy DLF, Brezinova V, Oswald I et al. Changes during weeks in effects of tricyclic drugs on the human sleep brain. Br J Psychiatry 1972; 120: 663-672.
18. Roth T, Zorick F, Wittig R et al. The effects of doxepin HCl on sleep and depression. J Clin Psychiatry 1982; 43: 366-368.
19. Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, Hoch CC et al. Longitudinal effects of nortriptyline on EEG sleep and the likelihood of recurrence in elderly depressed patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 14: 243-252.
20. Hartmann E, Cravens J. The effects of long term administration of psychotropic drugs on human sleep: III. The effects of amitriptyline. Psychopharmacologia 1973; 33: 185-202.
21. Gillin JC, Wyatt RJ, Fram D. The relationship between changes in REM sleep and clinical improvement in depressed patients treated with amitriptyline. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1978; 59: 267-272.
22. Baldessarini RJ. Drugs and the treatment of anxiety disorders: depression and anxiety disorders. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001: 447-483.
23. Golden RN, Dawkins K, Nicholas L. Trazodone and nefazodone. W: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C (red.). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of psychopharmacology. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Publishing, 2004: 315-325.
24. Montgomery I, Oswald I, Morgan K et al. Trazodone enhances sleep in subjective quality but not in objective duration. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 16: 139-144.
25. Saletu-Zyhlarz G, Abu-Bakr M, Anderer P et al. Insomnia in depression: differences in objective and subjective sleep awakening quality to normal controls and acute effects of trazodone. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2002; 26: 249-260.
26. Scharf MB, Sachais BA. Sleep laboratory evaluation of the effects and efficacy of trazodone in depressed insomniac patients. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 13-17.
27. Mouret J, Lemoine P, Minuit MP et al. Effects of trazodone on the sleep of depressed subjects – a polygraphic study. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 1988; 95: 37-43.
28. Le BO, Murphy JR, Staner L et al. Double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the efficacy of trazodone in alcohol post-withdrawal syndrome: polysomnographic and clinical evaluations. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2003; 23: 377-383.
29. Walsh JK, Erman M, Erwin CW et al. Subjective hypnotic efficacy of trazodone and zolpidem in DSMIII-R primary insomnia. Hum Psychopharmacol 1998; 13: 191-198.
30. Thompson JW, Ware MR, Blashfield BK. Psychotropic medication and priapism: a comprehensive review. J Clin Psychiatry 1990; 51: 430-433.
31. De Boer T. The pharmacologic profile of mirtazapine. J Clin Psychiatry 1996; 57 (supl 4): 19-25.
32. Caccia S. Metabolism of newer antidepressants. Clin Pharmacokinet 1998; 34: 281-302.
33. Nelson JC. Tricyclic and tetracyclic drugs. W: Schatzberg A, Nemeroff C (red.). The American Psychiatric Publishing textbook of psychopharmacology. American Psychiatric Publishing, Washington, DC 2004: 207-230.
34. DeMuro RL, Nafziger AN, Blask DE et al. The absolute bioavailability of oral melatonin. J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 40: 781-784.
35. Karim A, Tolbert D, Cao C. Disposition kinetics and tolerance of escalating single doses of ramelteon, a high-affinity MT1 and MT2 melatonin receptor agonist indicated for treatment of insomnia. J Clin Pharmacol 2006; 46: 140-148.
36. Andrade C, Srihari BS, Reddy KP, Chandramma L. Melatonin in medically ill patients with insomnia: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. J Clin Psychiatry 2001; 62: 41-45.
37. MacFarlane JG, Cleghorn JM, Brown GM et al. The effects of exogenous melatonin on the total sleep time and daytime alertness of chronic insomniacs: a preliminary study. Biol Psychiatry 1991; 30: 371-376.
38. James SP, Sack DA, Rosenthal NE. Melatonin administration in insomnia. Neuropsychopharmacology 1990; 3: 19-23.
39. Ellis CM, Lemmens G, Parkes JD. Melatonin and insomnia. J Sleep Res 1996; 5: 61-65.
40. Baskett JJ, Broad JB, Wood PC et al. Does melatonin improve sleep in older people? A randomized crossover trial. Age Ageing 2003; 32: 164-170.
41. Brown NJ, Roberts LJ. Histamine, bradykinin, and their antagonists. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw- Hill, New York 2001: 645-667.
42. Buysse DJ. Drugs affecting sleep, sleepiness and performance. W: Monk TH (red.). Sleep, sleepiness, and performance. Wiley, New York 1991: 249-306.
43. Basu R, Dodge H, Stoehr GP et al. Sedative-hypnotic use of diphenhydramine in a rural, older adult, community-based cohort: effects on cognition. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2003; 11: 205-213.
44. Koppel C, Tenczer J, Ibe K. Poisoning with over-the-counter doxylamine preparations: an evaluation of 109 cases. Hum Toxicol 1987; 6: 355-359.
45. Houghton PJ. The scientific basis for the reputed activity of valerian. J Pharm Pharmacol 1999; 51: 505-512.
46. Leathwood PD, Chauffard F, Heck E et al. Aqueous extract of valerian root (Valeriana officinalis L.) improves sleep quality in man. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1982; 17: 65-71.
47. Lindahl O, Lindwall L. Double blind study of a valerian preparation. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1989; 32: 1065-1066.
48. Schulz H, Stolz C, Muller J. The effect of valerian extract on sleep polygraphy in poor sleepers: a pilot study. Pharmacopsychiatry 1994; 27: 147-151.
49. Donath F, Quispe S, Diefenbach K et al. Critical evaluation of the effect of valerian extract on sleep structure and sleep quality. Pharmacopsychiatry 2000; 33: 47-53.
50. McNamara JO. Pharmacotherapy of the epilepsies. W: Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2006: 501-525.
51. McNamara JO. Drugs effective in the therapy of epilepsies. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001: 521-547.
52. Rose MA, Kam CA. Gabapentin: pharmacology and its use in pain management. Anaesthesia 2002; 57: 451-462.
53. Gilron I. Gabapentin and pregabalin for chronic neuropathic and early postsurgical pa. W: Current evidence and future directions. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol 2007; 20: 456-472.
54. Gajraj NM. Pregabalin: its pharmacology and use in pain management. Anesth Analg 2007; 105: 1805-1815.
55. Tassone DM, Boyce E, Guyer J, Nuzum D. Pregabalin: a novel gamma-aminobutyric acid analogue in the treatment of neuropathic pain, partial-onset seizures, and anxiety disorders. Clin Ther 2007; 29: 26-48.
56. Mathias S, Wetter TC, Steiger A et al. The GABA uptake inhibitor tiagabine promotes slow wave sleep in normal elderly subjects. Neurobiol Aging 2001; 22: 247-253.
57. Harrison NL. Mechanisms of sleep induction by GABAA receptor agonists. J Clin Psychiatry 2007; 68 (supl 5): 6-12.
58. Stahl SM. Essential pharmacology: neuroscientific basis and practical application. New York, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
59. Baldessarini RJ, Tarazi FI. Drugs and the treatment of anxiety disorders: psychosis and mania. W: Hardman JG, Limbird LE (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw-Hill, New York 2001: 485-520.
60. Baldessarini RJ. Drug therapy of depression and anxiety disorders. W: Brunton LL, Lazo JS, Parker KL (red.). Goodman and Gilman’s the pharmacological basis of therapeutics. McGraw- Hill, New York 2006: 429-459.
61. Yamashita H, Mori K, Nagao M et al. Influence of aging on the improvement of subjective sleep quality by atypical antipsychotic drugs in patients with schizophrenia: comparison of middle-aged and older adults. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2005; 13: 377-384.
62. Yamashita H, Mori K, Nagao M et al. Effects of changing from typical to atypical antipsychotic drugs on subjective sleep quality in patients with schizophrenia in a Japanese population. J Clin Psychiatry 2004; 65: 1525-1530.
63. Todder D, Caliskan S, Baune BT. Night locomotor activity and quality of sleep in quetiapine-treated patients with depression. J Clin Psychopharmacol 2006; 26: 638-642.
64. Baune BT, Caliskan S, Todder D. Effects of adjunctive antidepressant therapy with quetiapine on clinical outcome, quality of sleep and daytime motor activity in patients with treatment- resistant depression. Hum Psychopharmacol 2007; 22: 1-9.
65. Vieta E, Calabrese JR, Goikolea JM et al. Quetiapine monotherapy in the treatment of patients with bipolar I or II depression and a rapid-cycling disease course: a randomized, doubleblind, placebo-controlled study. Bipolar Disord 2007; 9: 413-425.
66. Sharpley AL, Vassallo CM, Cowen PJ. Olanzapine increases slow-wave sleep: evidence for blockade of central 5-HT2C receptors in vivo. Biol Psychiatry 2000; 47: 468-470.
67. Salin-Pascual RJ, Herrera-Estrella M, Galicia-Polo L et al. Olanzapine acute administration in schizophrenic patients increases delta sleep and sleep efficiency. Biol Psychiatry 1999; 46: 141-143.
68. Lindberg N, Virkkunen M, Tani P et al. Effect of a single-dose of olanzapine on sleep in healthy females and males. Int Clin Psychopharmacol 2002; 17: 177-184.
69. Sharpley AL, Vassallo CM, Pooley EC. Allelic variation in the 5-HT2C receptor (HT2RC) and the increase in slow wave sleep produced by olanzapine. Psychopathology 2001; 153: 271-272.
70. Gimenez S, Clos S, Romero S et al. Effects of olanzapine, risperidone and haloperidol on sleep after a single oral morning dose in healthy volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2007; 190: 507-516.
71. Cohrs S, Rodenbeck A, Guan Z et al. Sleep-promoting properties of quetiapine in healthy subjects. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2004; 174: 421-429.
72. Wise MS, Arand DL, Auger RR et al. Treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin. Sleep 2007; 30: 1712-1727.
73. Pardi D, Black J. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate/sodium oxybate: neurobiology, and impact on sleep and wakefulness. CNS Drugs 2006; 20: 993-1018.
74. Lapierre O, Montplaisir J, Lamarre M et al. The effect of gamma- hydroxybutyrate on nocturnal and diurnal sleep of normal subjects: further considerations on REM sleep-triggering mechanisms. Sleep 1990; 13: 24-30.
75. Van Cauter E, Plat L, Scharf MB et al. Simultaneous stimulation of slow-wave sleep and growth hormone secretion by gamma-hydroxybutyrate in normal young men. J Clin Invest 1997; 100: 745-753.
76. Scrima L, Hartman PG, Johnson FH et al. The effects of gamma- hydroxybutyrate on the sleep of narcolepsy patients: a double-blind study. Sleep 1990; 13: 479-490.
77. Scharf MB, Baumann M, Berkowitz DV. The effects of sodium oxybate on clinical symptoms and sleep patterns in patients with fibromyalgia. J Rheumatol 2003; 30: 1070-1074.
78. Garrison M. New development for age-old problems. Sleep Rev 2008; 9: 34-37.
79. Skalski M. The Diagnosis and Treatment of Insomnia. W: Saddichha S (red.). Can’t Sleep? Issues of Being an Insomniac. In-Tech, Rijeka 2012.