Side effects of contrast media – the current state of knowledge. Part 1. Characteristics of contrast media, types and clinical picture of side effects
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Published:
Mar 31, 2017
Keywords:
contrast media, iodinated contrast media, gadolinium-based contrast media, hypersensitivity, toxic reactions
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Abstract
Paper presents the current state of knowledge on side effects of radiographic contrast media; both hypersensitivity and toxic reactions. Iodinated and gadolinium-based contrast media are discussed. Authors refer to many published studies that assess the incidence of side effects to their administration. Clinical picture and pathomechanism of adverse reactions are also presented.
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Sadowska , B., & Lipiec , A. (2017). Side effects of contrast media – the current state of knowledge. Part 1. Characteristics of contrast media, types and clinical picture of side effects. Alergoprofil, 13(1), 13-22. Retrieved from https://journalsmededu.pl/index.php/alergoprofil/article/view/172
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Copyright: © Medical Education sp. z o.o. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
Address reprint requests to: Medical Education, Marcin Kuźma (marcin.kuzma@mededu.pl)
References
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4. Brockow K., Christiansen C., Kanny G. et al.: Management of hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media. Allergy 2005, 60(2): 150-158.
5. Lapi F., Cecchi E., Pedone C. et al.: Safety aspects of iodinated contrast media related to their physicochemical properties: A pharmacoepidemiology study in two Tuscany hospitals. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2008, 64(7): 723-737.
6. ACR Committee M on CD and C. Manual on Contrast Media, v. 10.1., 2015 [online: http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/ Documents/PDF/QualitySafety/Resources/Contrast Manual/ 2015_Contrast_Media.pdf].
7. Egbert R.E., De Cecco C.N., Schoepf U.J. et al.: Delayed adverse reactions to the parenteral administration of iodinated contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2014, 203(6): 1163-1170.
8. Brockow K., Sánchez-Borges M.: Hypersensitivity to Contrast Media and Dyes. Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 2014, 34(3): 547-564.
9. Brockow K., Romano A., Aberer W. et al.: Skin testing in patients with hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media – A European multicenter study. Allergy 2009, 64(2): 234-241.
10. Rosado Ingelmo A., Diaz D.I., Moreno C.R. et al.: Clinical Practice Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hypersensitivity Reactions to Contrast Media. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 2016, 26(263): 144-155.
11. Mortelé K.J., Oliva M.R., Ondategui S. et al.: Universal use of nonionic iodinated contrast medium for CT: Evaluation of safety in a large urban teaching hospital. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2005, 184(1): 31-34.
12. Solomon R.: Contrast media: Are there differences in nephrotoxicity among contrast media? Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, DOI: 10.1155/2014/934947.
13. Mozaffarian D., Benjamin E.J., Go A.S. et al.: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics – 2015 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015, 131(4): e29 322. DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000152.
14. Yoon S.H., Lee S.Y., Kang H.R. et al.: Skin tests in patients with hypersensitivity reaction to iodinated contrast media: a meta-analysis. Allergy 2015, 70(6): 625-637.
15. Siddiqi N.H. Contrast Medium Reaction [online: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/422855-overview].
16. Lerondeau B., Trechot P., Waton J. et al.: Analysis of cross-reactivity among radiocontrast media in 97 hypersensitivity reactions. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2016, 137(2): 633-635.
17. Lieberman P.L., Seigle R.L.: Reactions to radiocontrast material: Anaphylactoid events in radiology. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 1999, 17: 469-496.
18. Dong M., Jiao Z., Liu T. et al.: Effect of administration route on the renal safety of contrast agents: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Nephrol. 2012, 25(3): 290-301.
19. Granata V., Cascella M., Fusco R. et al.: Immediate Adverse Reactions to Gadolinium-Based MR Contrast Media: A Retrospective Analysis on 10,608 Examinations. BioMed Res. Int. 2016 [Article ID 3918292: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/3918292].
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23. Wang C.L., Cohan R.H., Ellis J.H. et al.: Frequency, outcome, and appropriateness of treatment of nonionic iodinated contrast media reactions. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2008, 191(2): 409-415.
24. Motosugi U., Ichikawa T., Sano K., Onishi H.: Acute Adverse Reactions to Nonionic Iodinated Contrast Media for CT: Prospective Randomized Evaluation of the Effects of Dehydration, Oral Rehydration, and Patient Risk Factors. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2016, 207: DOI: 10.2214/AJR.16.16051.
25. Cochran S.T., Bomyea K., Sayre J.W.: Trends in adverse events after IV administration of contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2001, 176: 1385-1388.
26. Kopp A.F., Mortele K.J., Cho Y.D. et al.: Prevalence of acute reactions to iopromide: postmarketing surveillance study of 74,717 patients. Acta Radiol. 2008, 49(8): 902-911.
27. Hunt C.H., Hartman R.P., Hesley G.K.: Frequency and severity of adverse effects of iodinated and gadolinium contrast materials: Retrospective review of 456,930 doses. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2009, 193(4): 1124-1127.
28. Bush W.H., Swanson D.P.: Acute reactions to intravascular contrast media: Types, risk factors, recognition, and specific treatment. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1991, 157(6): 1153-1161.
29. Katayma H.: Adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1990, 175: 621-628.
30. Greenberger P.A., Patterson R.: The prevention of immediate generalized reactions to radiocontrast media in high-risk patients. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1991, 87(4): 867-872.
31. Caro J.J., Trindade E., McGregor M.: The risks of death and of severe nonfatal reactions with high-vs low-osmolality contrast media: A meta-analysis. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1991, 156(4): 825-832.
32. Lasser E.C., Lyon S.G., Berry C.C.: Reports on contrast media reactions: analysis of data from reports to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Radiology 1997, 203(3): 605-610.
33. Dillman J.R., Strouse P.J., Ellis J.H. et al.: Incidence and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to IV nonionic iodinated contrast material in children. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2007, 188(6): 1643-1647.
34. Callahan M.J., Poznauskis L., Zurakowski D., Taylor G.A.: Nonionic Iodinated Intravenous Contrast Material-related Reactions: Incidence in Large Urban Children’s Hospital – Retrospective Analysis of Data in 12 494 Patients. Radiology 2009, 250(3): 674-681.
35. Freed K.S., Leder R.A., Alexander C. et al.: Breakthrough adverse reactions to low-osmolar contrast media after steroid premedication. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2001, 176(6): 1389-1392.
36. Yamaguchi K., Katayama H., Takashima T. et al.: Prediction of severe adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media in Japan: evaluation of pretesting. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1991, 178(2): 363-367.
37. Egbert R.E., De Cecco C.N., Schoepf U.J. et al.: Delayed adverse reactions to the parenteral administration of iodinated contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2014, 203(6): 1163-1170.
38. Jung J.W., Kang H.R., Kim M.H. et al.: Immediate hypersensitivity reaction to gadolinium-based MR contrast media. Radiology 2012, 264(2): 414-422.
39. Fakhran S., Alhilali L., Kale H., Kanal E.: Assessment of rates of acute adverse reactions to gadobenate dimeglumine: review of more than 130,000 administrations in 7.5 years. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 2015, 204(4): 703-706.
40. Dillman J.R., Ellis J.H., Cohan R.H. et al.: Frequency and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to gadolinium-containing IV contrast media in children and adults. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2007, 189(6): 1533-1538.
41. Dunnick N.R., Cohan R.H.: Cost, corticosteroids, and contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1994, 162: 527-529.
42. Christiansen C., Pichler W.J., Skotland T.: Delayed allergy-like reactions to X-ray contrast media: Mechanistic considerations. Eur. Radiol. 2000, 10(12): 1965-1975.
43. Webb J.W., Stacul F., Thomsen H.S., Morcos S.K.: Late adverse reactions to intravascular iodinated contrast media. Eur. Radiol. 2003, 13(1): 181-184.
44. Brockow K.: Contrast media hypersensitivity – scope of the problem. Toxicology 2005, 209: 189-192.
45. Loh S., Bagheri S., Katzberg R.W. et al.: Delayed adverse reaction to contrast-enhanced CT: a prospective single-center study comparison to control group without enhancement. Radiology 2010, 255(3): 764-771.
46. Vernassiere C., Trechot P., Commun N. et al.: Low negative predictive value of skin tests in investigating delayed reactions to radio-contrast media. Contact Dermatitis 2004, 50(6): 359-366.
47. Meth M.J., Maibach H.I.: Current understanding of contrast media reactions and implications for clinical management. Drug Saf. 2006, 29(2): 133-141.
48. Choyke P.L., Miller D.L., Lotze M.T. et al.: Delayed reactions to contrast media after interleukin-2 immunotherapy. Radiology 1992, 183(1): 111-114.
49. Schild H.H., Kuhl C.K., Hubner-Steiner U. et al.: Adverse events after unenhanced and monomeric and dimeric contrast-enhanced CT: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Radiology 2006, 240(1): 56-64.
50. Sutton A.G.C., Finn P., Grech E.D. et al.: Early and late reactions after the use of iopamidol 340, ioxaglate 320, and iodixanol 320 in cardiac catheterization. Am. Heart J. 2001, 141(4): 677-683.
51. Sutton A.G., Finn P., Campbell P.G. et al.: Early and late reactions following the use of iopamidol 340, iomeprol 350 and iodixanol 320 in cardiac catheterization. J. Invasive Cardiol. 2003, 15: 133-138.
52. Savill J.S., Barrie R., Ghosh S. et al.: Fatal Stevens-Johnson syndrome following urography with iopamidol in systemic lupus erythematosus. Postgrad. Med. J. 1988, 64(751): 392-394.
53. Laffitte E., Nenadov Beck M., Hofer M. et al.: Severe Stevens-Johnson syndrome induced by contrast medium iopentol (Imagopaque). Br. J. Dermatol. 2004, 150: 376-378.
54. Atasoy M., Erdem T., Sari R.A.: A case of acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP) possibly induced by iohexol. J. Dermatol. 2003, 30: 723-726.
55. Peterson A., Katzberg R.W., Fung M.A. et al.: Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis as a delayed dermatotoxic reaction to IV-administered nonionic contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2006, 187: 198-201.
56. Hammerbeck A.A., Daniels N.H., Callen J.P.: Ioversol-induced acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis: a case report. Arch. Dermatol. 2009, 145: 683-687.
57. Poliak N., Elias M., Cianferoni A., Treat J.: Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis: the first pediatric case caused by a contrast agent. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2010, 105: 242-243.
58. Rhee C.M., Bhan I., Alexander E.K., Brunelli S.M.: Association Between Iodinated Contrast Media Exposure and Incident Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism. Arch. Intern. Med. 2012, 172(2): 153-159.
59. Lakhal K., Ehrmann S., Chaari A. et al.: Acute Kidney Injury Network definition of contrast-induced nephropathy in the critically ill: Incidence and outcome. J. Crit. Care 2011, 26(6): 593-599.
60. Mehran R., Nikolsky E.: Contrast-induced nephropathy: definition, epidemiology, and patients at risk. Kidney Int. Suppl. 2006, 69(100): S11-S15.
61. Solomon R.: Contrast-Induced Acute Kidney Injury (CIAKI). Radiol. Clin. North Am. 2009, 47(5): 783-788.
62. Gleeson T., Bulugahapitiya S.: Contrast-induced nephropathy. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2004, 183(6): 1673-1689.
63. Tsushima Y., Ishiguchi T., Murakami T. et al.: Safe use of iodinated and gadolinium-based contrast media in current practice in Japan: a questionnaire survey. Jpn. J. Radiol. 2016, 34(2): 130-139.
64. Gilgen-Anner Y., Heim M., Ledermann H.P., Bircher A.J.: Iodide mumps after contrast media imaging: a rare adverse effect to iodine. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2007, 99(1): 93-98.
65. Donnelly P.K., Williams B., Watkin E.M.: Polyarthropathy – a delayed reaction to low osmolality angiographic contrast medium in patients with end stage renal disease. Eur. J. Radiol. 1993, 17(2): 130-132.
66. Morcos S.K.: Acute serious and fatal reactions to contrast media: Our current understanding. Br. J. Radiol. 2005, 78(932): 686-693.
67. Lasser E.C.: The multipotential pseudoantigenicity of X-ray contrast media: Pseudoantigen excess may downregulate the release of hypotensive mediators. Int. Arch. Allergy Immunol. 2000, 123(4): 282-290.
68. Laroche D., Aimone-Gastin I., Dubois F. et al.: Mechanisms of severe, immediate reactions to iodinated contrast material. Radiology 1998, 209(1): 183-190.
69. Bouachour G., Varache N., Szapiro N. et al.: Noncardiogenic pulmonary edema resulting from intravascular administration of contrast material. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1991, 157: 255-256.
70. Gómez E., Ariza A., Blanca-López N., Torres M.J.: Nonimmediate hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media. Curr. Opin. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2013, 13(4): 345-353.
71. Kanny G., Pichler W., Morisset M. et al.: T cell-mediated reactions to iodinated contrast media: Evaluation by skin and lymphocyte activation tests. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2005, 115(1): 179-185.
72. Galera C., Ozygit L.P., Cavigioli S. et al.: Gadoteridol-induced anaphylaxis – not a class allergy. Allergy 2010, 65(1): 132-134.
2. Andreucci M., Solomon R., Tasanarong A.: Side effects of radiographic contrast media: Pathogenesis, risk factors, and prevention. Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, DOI: 10.1155/2014/741018.
3. Davis P.L.: Anaphylactoid reactions to the nonvascular administration of water-soluble iodinated contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2015, 204(6): 1140-1145.
4. Brockow K., Christiansen C., Kanny G. et al.: Management of hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media. Allergy 2005, 60(2): 150-158.
5. Lapi F., Cecchi E., Pedone C. et al.: Safety aspects of iodinated contrast media related to their physicochemical properties: A pharmacoepidemiology study in two Tuscany hospitals. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 2008, 64(7): 723-737.
6. ACR Committee M on CD and C. Manual on Contrast Media, v. 10.1., 2015 [online: http://www.acr.org/~/media/ACR/ Documents/PDF/QualitySafety/Resources/Contrast Manual/ 2015_Contrast_Media.pdf].
7. Egbert R.E., De Cecco C.N., Schoepf U.J. et al.: Delayed adverse reactions to the parenteral administration of iodinated contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2014, 203(6): 1163-1170.
8. Brockow K., Sánchez-Borges M.: Hypersensitivity to Contrast Media and Dyes. Immunol. Allergy Clin. North Am. 2014, 34(3): 547-564.
9. Brockow K., Romano A., Aberer W. et al.: Skin testing in patients with hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media – A European multicenter study. Allergy 2009, 64(2): 234-241.
10. Rosado Ingelmo A., Diaz D.I., Moreno C.R. et al.: Clinical Practice Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hypersensitivity Reactions to Contrast Media. J. Investig. Allergol. Clin. Immunol. 2016, 26(263): 144-155.
11. Mortelé K.J., Oliva M.R., Ondategui S. et al.: Universal use of nonionic iodinated contrast medium for CT: Evaluation of safety in a large urban teaching hospital. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2005, 184(1): 31-34.
12. Solomon R.: Contrast media: Are there differences in nephrotoxicity among contrast media? Biomed. Res. Int. 2014, DOI: 10.1155/2014/934947.
13. Mozaffarian D., Benjamin E.J., Go A.S. et al.: Heart Disease and Stroke Statistics – 2015 Update: A Report From the American Heart Association. Circulation 2015, 131(4): e29 322. DOI: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000152.
14. Yoon S.H., Lee S.Y., Kang H.R. et al.: Skin tests in patients with hypersensitivity reaction to iodinated contrast media: a meta-analysis. Allergy 2015, 70(6): 625-637.
15. Siddiqi N.H. Contrast Medium Reaction [online: http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/422855-overview].
16. Lerondeau B., Trechot P., Waton J. et al.: Analysis of cross-reactivity among radiocontrast media in 97 hypersensitivity reactions. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 2016, 137(2): 633-635.
17. Lieberman P.L., Seigle R.L.: Reactions to radiocontrast material: Anaphylactoid events in radiology. Clin. Rev. Allergy Immunol. 1999, 17: 469-496.
18. Dong M., Jiao Z., Liu T. et al.: Effect of administration route on the renal safety of contrast agents: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. J. Nephrol. 2012, 25(3): 290-301.
19. Granata V., Cascella M., Fusco R. et al.: Immediate Adverse Reactions to Gadolinium-Based MR Contrast Media: A Retrospective Analysis on 10,608 Examinations. BioMed Res. Int. 2016 [Article ID 3918292: http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2016/3918292].
20. Ramalho J., Semelka R.C., Ramalho M. et al.: Gadolinium-based contrast agent accumulation and toxicity: An update. Am. J. Neuroradiol. 2016, 37(7): 1192-1198.
21. European Society of Urogenital Radiology, ESUR Guidelines on Contrast Media. V. 9.0. European Society of Urogenital Radiology, 2015 [online: http://www.esur.org/guidelines].
22. Brockow K., Christiansen C., Kanny G. et al.: Management of hypersensitivity reactions to iodinated contrast media. Allergy 2005, 60(2): 150-158.
23. Wang C.L., Cohan R.H., Ellis J.H. et al.: Frequency, outcome, and appropriateness of treatment of nonionic iodinated contrast media reactions. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2008, 191(2): 409-415.
24. Motosugi U., Ichikawa T., Sano K., Onishi H.: Acute Adverse Reactions to Nonionic Iodinated Contrast Media for CT: Prospective Randomized Evaluation of the Effects of Dehydration, Oral Rehydration, and Patient Risk Factors. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2016, 207: DOI: 10.2214/AJR.16.16051.
25. Cochran S.T., Bomyea K., Sayre J.W.: Trends in adverse events after IV administration of contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2001, 176: 1385-1388.
26. Kopp A.F., Mortele K.J., Cho Y.D. et al.: Prevalence of acute reactions to iopromide: postmarketing surveillance study of 74,717 patients. Acta Radiol. 2008, 49(8): 902-911.
27. Hunt C.H., Hartman R.P., Hesley G.K.: Frequency and severity of adverse effects of iodinated and gadolinium contrast materials: Retrospective review of 456,930 doses. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2009, 193(4): 1124-1127.
28. Bush W.H., Swanson D.P.: Acute reactions to intravascular contrast media: Types, risk factors, recognition, and specific treatment. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1991, 157(6): 1153-1161.
29. Katayma H.: Adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1990, 175: 621-628.
30. Greenberger P.A., Patterson R.: The prevention of immediate generalized reactions to radiocontrast media in high-risk patients. J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 1991, 87(4): 867-872.
31. Caro J.J., Trindade E., McGregor M.: The risks of death and of severe nonfatal reactions with high-vs low-osmolality contrast media: A meta-analysis. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1991, 156(4): 825-832.
32. Lasser E.C., Lyon S.G., Berry C.C.: Reports on contrast media reactions: analysis of data from reports to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Radiology 1997, 203(3): 605-610.
33. Dillman J.R., Strouse P.J., Ellis J.H. et al.: Incidence and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to IV nonionic iodinated contrast material in children. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2007, 188(6): 1643-1647.
34. Callahan M.J., Poznauskis L., Zurakowski D., Taylor G.A.: Nonionic Iodinated Intravenous Contrast Material-related Reactions: Incidence in Large Urban Children’s Hospital – Retrospective Analysis of Data in 12 494 Patients. Radiology 2009, 250(3): 674-681.
35. Freed K.S., Leder R.A., Alexander C. et al.: Breakthrough adverse reactions to low-osmolar contrast media after steroid premedication. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2001, 176(6): 1389-1392.
36. Yamaguchi K., Katayama H., Takashima T. et al.: Prediction of severe adverse reactions to ionic and nonionic contrast media in Japan: evaluation of pretesting. A report from the Japanese Committee on the Safety of Contrast Media. Radiology 1991, 178(2): 363-367.
37. Egbert R.E., De Cecco C.N., Schoepf U.J. et al.: Delayed adverse reactions to the parenteral administration of iodinated contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2014, 203(6): 1163-1170.
38. Jung J.W., Kang H.R., Kim M.H. et al.: Immediate hypersensitivity reaction to gadolinium-based MR contrast media. Radiology 2012, 264(2): 414-422.
39. Fakhran S., Alhilali L., Kale H., Kanal E.: Assessment of rates of acute adverse reactions to gadobenate dimeglumine: review of more than 130,000 administrations in 7.5 years. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 2015, 204(4): 703-706.
40. Dillman J.R., Ellis J.H., Cohan R.H. et al.: Frequency and severity of acute allergic-like reactions to gadolinium-containing IV contrast media in children and adults. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2007, 189(6): 1533-1538.
41. Dunnick N.R., Cohan R.H.: Cost, corticosteroids, and contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 1994, 162: 527-529.
42. Christiansen C., Pichler W.J., Skotland T.: Delayed allergy-like reactions to X-ray contrast media: Mechanistic considerations. Eur. Radiol. 2000, 10(12): 1965-1975.
43. Webb J.W., Stacul F., Thomsen H.S., Morcos S.K.: Late adverse reactions to intravascular iodinated contrast media. Eur. Radiol. 2003, 13(1): 181-184.
44. Brockow K.: Contrast media hypersensitivity – scope of the problem. Toxicology 2005, 209: 189-192.
45. Loh S., Bagheri S., Katzberg R.W. et al.: Delayed adverse reaction to contrast-enhanced CT: a prospective single-center study comparison to control group without enhancement. Radiology 2010, 255(3): 764-771.
46. Vernassiere C., Trechot P., Commun N. et al.: Low negative predictive value of skin tests in investigating delayed reactions to radio-contrast media. Contact Dermatitis 2004, 50(6): 359-366.
47. Meth M.J., Maibach H.I.: Current understanding of contrast media reactions and implications for clinical management. Drug Saf. 2006, 29(2): 133-141.
48. Choyke P.L., Miller D.L., Lotze M.T. et al.: Delayed reactions to contrast media after interleukin-2 immunotherapy. Radiology 1992, 183(1): 111-114.
49. Schild H.H., Kuhl C.K., Hubner-Steiner U. et al.: Adverse events after unenhanced and monomeric and dimeric contrast-enhanced CT: a prospective randomized controlled trial. Radiology 2006, 240(1): 56-64.
50. Sutton A.G.C., Finn P., Grech E.D. et al.: Early and late reactions after the use of iopamidol 340, ioxaglate 320, and iodixanol 320 in cardiac catheterization. Am. Heart J. 2001, 141(4): 677-683.
51. Sutton A.G., Finn P., Campbell P.G. et al.: Early and late reactions following the use of iopamidol 340, iomeprol 350 and iodixanol 320 in cardiac catheterization. J. Invasive Cardiol. 2003, 15: 133-138.
52. Savill J.S., Barrie R., Ghosh S. et al.: Fatal Stevens-Johnson syndrome following urography with iopamidol in systemic lupus erythematosus. Postgrad. Med. J. 1988, 64(751): 392-394.
53. Laffitte E., Nenadov Beck M., Hofer M. et al.: Severe Stevens-Johnson syndrome induced by contrast medium iopentol (Imagopaque). Br. J. Dermatol. 2004, 150: 376-378.
54. Atasoy M., Erdem T., Sari R.A.: A case of acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis (AGEP) possibly induced by iohexol. J. Dermatol. 2003, 30: 723-726.
55. Peterson A., Katzberg R.W., Fung M.A. et al.: Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis as a delayed dermatotoxic reaction to IV-administered nonionic contrast media. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2006, 187: 198-201.
56. Hammerbeck A.A., Daniels N.H., Callen J.P.: Ioversol-induced acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis: a case report. Arch. Dermatol. 2009, 145: 683-687.
57. Poliak N., Elias M., Cianferoni A., Treat J.: Acute generalized exanthematous pustulosis: the first pediatric case caused by a contrast agent. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2010, 105: 242-243.
58. Rhee C.M., Bhan I., Alexander E.K., Brunelli S.M.: Association Between Iodinated Contrast Media Exposure and Incident Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism. Arch. Intern. Med. 2012, 172(2): 153-159.
59. Lakhal K., Ehrmann S., Chaari A. et al.: Acute Kidney Injury Network definition of contrast-induced nephropathy in the critically ill: Incidence and outcome. J. Crit. Care 2011, 26(6): 593-599.
60. Mehran R., Nikolsky E.: Contrast-induced nephropathy: definition, epidemiology, and patients at risk. Kidney Int. Suppl. 2006, 69(100): S11-S15.
61. Solomon R.: Contrast-Induced Acute Kidney Injury (CIAKI). Radiol. Clin. North Am. 2009, 47(5): 783-788.
62. Gleeson T., Bulugahapitiya S.: Contrast-induced nephropathy. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2004, 183(6): 1673-1689.
63. Tsushima Y., Ishiguchi T., Murakami T. et al.: Safe use of iodinated and gadolinium-based contrast media in current practice in Japan: a questionnaire survey. Jpn. J. Radiol. 2016, 34(2): 130-139.
64. Gilgen-Anner Y., Heim M., Ledermann H.P., Bircher A.J.: Iodide mumps after contrast media imaging: a rare adverse effect to iodine. Ann. Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2007, 99(1): 93-98.
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