An update on stress-induced cardiomyopathy Review article
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Published:
Jun 30, 2013
Keywords:
stress-induced cardiomyopathy, catecholamine, apical ballooning
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Abstract
Stress-induced cardiomyopathy is an increasingly reported syndrome characterized by transient regional left ventricle dysfunction in absence of significant coronary artery disease. The article gives an update on takotsubo cardiomyopathy, its pathomechanism, including predisposing factors, also on clinical presentation, diagnosis, treatment options and prognosis. Additionally, article proposes a treatment algorithm according to current guidelines.
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Możeńska , O. (2013). An update on stress-induced cardiomyopathy. Cardiology in Practice, 7(2), 3-13. Retrieved from https://journalsmededu.pl/index.php/kwp/article/view/1564
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Copyright: © Medical Education sp. z o.o. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
Address reprint requests to: Medical Education, Marcin Kuźma (marcin.kuzma@mededu.pl)
References
1. Dote K., Sato H., Tateishi H. et al.: [Myocardial stunning due to simultaneous multivessel coronary spasms: review of 5 cases]. J. Cardiol. 1991; 21: 203.
2. Bybee K.A., Kara T., Prasad A. et al.: Systematic review: transient left ventricular apical ballooning: a syndrome that mimics ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004; 141: 858.
3. Tsuchihashi K., Ueshima K., Uchida T. et al.: Transient left ventricular apical ballooning without coronary artery stenosis: a novel heart syndrome mimicking acute myocardial infarction. Angina Pectoris-Myocardial Infarction Investigations in Japan. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2001; 38: 11.
4. Abe Y., Kondo M., Matsuoka R. et al.: Assessment of clinical features in transient left ventricular apical ballooning. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003; 41: 737.
5. Hachamovitch R., Chang J.D., Kuntz R.E. et al.: Recurrent reversible cardiogenic shock triggered by emotional distress with no obstructive coronary disease. Am. Heart J. 1995; 129: 1026.
6. Sharkey S.W., Lesser J.R., Zenovich A.G. et al.: Acute and reversible cardiomyopathy provoked by stress in women from the United States. Circulation 2005; 111: 472.
7. Wittstein I.S., Thiemann D.R., Lima J.A. et al.: Neurohumoral features of myocardial stunning due to sudden emotional stress. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005; 352: 539.
8. Desmet W.J., Adriaenssens B.F., Dens J.A.: Apical ballooning of the left ventricle: first series in white patients. Heart 2003; 89: 1027.
9. Bybee K.A., Prasad A., Barsness G.W. et al.: Clinical characteristics and thrombolysis in myocardial infarction frame counts in women with transient left ventricular apical ballooning syndrome. Am. J. Cardiol. 2004; 94: 343.
10. Dec G.W.: Recognition of the apical ballooning syndrome in the United States. Circulation 2005; 111: 388.
11. Aurigemma G.P., Tighe D.A.: Echocardiography and reversible left ventricular dysfunction. Am. J. Med. 2006; 119: 18.
12. Bybee K.A., Prasad A.: Stress-related cardiomyopathy syndromes. Circulation 2008; 118: 397.
13. Prasad A., Lerman A., Rihal C.S.: Apical ballooning syndrome (Tako-Tsubo or stress cardiomyopathy): a mimic of acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 2008; 155: 408.
14. Akashi Y.J., Goldstein D.S., Barbaro G., Ueyama T.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a new form of acute, reversible heart failure. Circulation 2008; 118: 2754.
15. Kurowski V., Kaiser A., von Hof K. et al.: Apical and midventricular transient left ventricular dysfunction syndrome (tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy): frequency, mechanisms, and prognosis. Chest 2007; 132: 809.
16. Eitel I., von Knobelsdorff-Brenkenhoff F., Bernhardt P. et al.: Clinical characteristics and cardiovascular magnetic resonance findings in stress (takotsubo) cardiomyopathy. JAMA 2011; 306: 277.
17. Watanabe H., Kodama M., Okura Y. et al.: Impact of earthquakes on Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. JAMA 2005; 294: 305.
18. Paur H., Wright P.T., Sikkel M.B. et al.: High levels of circulating epinephrine trigger apical cardiodepression in β2-adrenergic receptor/Gi-dependent manner: a new model of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2012; 126: 697.
19. Ibanez B., Navarro F., Cordoba M. et al.: Tako-tsubo transient left ventricular apical ballooning: is intravascular ultrasound the key to resolve the enigma? Heart 2005; 91: 102.
20. Haghi D., Roehm S., Hamm K. et al.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is not due to plaque rupture: an intravascular ultrasound study. Clin. Cardiol. 2010; 33: 307.
21. Delgado G.A., Truesdell A.G., Kirchner R.M. et al.: An angiographic and intravascular ultrasound study of the left anterior descending coronary artery in takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 2011; 108: 888.
22. Gianni M., Dentali F., Grandi A.M. et al.: Apical ballooning syndrome or takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. Eur. Heart J. 2006; 27: 1523.
23. Nef H.M., Möllmann H., Kostin S. et al.: Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy: intraindividual structural analysis in the acute phase and after functional recovery. Eur. Heart J. 2007; 28: 2456.
24. Sharkey S.W., Windenburg D.C., Lesser J.R. et al.: Natural history and expansive clinical profile of stress (tako- tsubo) cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55: 333.
25. Ito K., Sugihara H., Katoh S. et al.: Assessment of Takotsubo (ampulla) cardiomyopathy using 99mTc-tetrofosmin myocardial SPECT-comparison with acute coronary syndrome. Ann. Nucl. Med. 2003; 17(2): 115.
26. Akashi Y.J., Nakazawa K., Sakakibara M. et al.: 123I-MIBG myocardial scintigraphy in patients with “takotsubo” cardiomyopathy. J. Nucl. Med. 2004; 45: 1121.
27. Kurisu S., Inoue I., Kawagoe T. et al.: Time course of electrocardiographic changes in patients with tako-tsubo syndrome: comparison with acute myocardial infarction with minimal enzymatic release. Circ. J. 2004; 68: 77.
28. Ueyama T.: Emotional stress-induced Tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy: animal model and molecular mechanism. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2004; 1018: 437.
29. Kassim T.A., Clarke D.D., Mai V.Q. et al.: Catecholamine-induced cardiomyopathy. Endocr. Pract. 2008; 14: 1137.
30. Ako J., Sudhir K., Farouque H.M. et al.: Transient left ventricular dysfunction under severe stress: brain-hear relationship revisited. Am. J. Med. 2006; 119: 10.
31. Kurisu S., Sato H., Kawagoe T. et al.: Tako-tsubo-like left ventricular dysfunction with ST-segment elevation: a novel cardiac syndrome mimicking acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 2002; 143: 448.
32. Karch S.B., Billingham M.E.: Myocardial contraction bands revisited. Hum. Pathol. 1986; 17: 9.
33. Fineschi V., Silver M.D., Karch S.B. et al.: Myocardial disarray: an architectural disorganization linked with adrenergic stress? Int. J. Cardiol. 2005; 99: 277.
34. Pison L., De Vusser P., Mullens W.: Apical ballooning in relatives. Heart 2004; 90: e67.
35. Kumar G., Holmes D.R. Jr, Prasad A.: “Familial” apical ballooning syndrome (Takotsubo cardiomyopathy). Int. Cardiol. 2010; 144: 444.
36. Handy A.D., Prasad A., Olson T.M.: Investigating genetic variation of adrenergic receptors in familial stress cardiomyopathy (apical ballooning syndrome). J. Cardiol. 2009; 54: 516.
37. Sharkey S.W., Maron B.J., Nelson P. et al.: Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms in patients with stress (tako-tsubo) cardiomyopathy. J. Cardiol. 2009; 53: 53.
38. Summers M.R., Lennon R.J., Prasad A.: Pre-morbid psychiatric and cardiovascular diseases in apical ballooning syndrome (tako-tsubo/stress-induced cardiomyopathy): potential pre-disposing factors? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55: 700.
39. Park J.H., Kang S.J., Song J.K. et al.: Left ventricular apical ballooning due to severe physical stress in patients admitted to the medical ICU. Chest 2005; 128: 296.
40. Matsuoka K., Okubo S., Fujii E. et al.: Evaluation of the arrhythmogenecity of stress-induced “Takotsubo cardiomyopathy” from the time course of the 12-lead surface electrocardiogram. Am. J. Cardiol. 2003; 92: 230.
41. Villareal R.P., Achari A., Wilansky S. et al.: Anteroapical stunning and left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2001; 76: 79.
42. Barrera-Ramirez C.F., Jimenez-Mazuecos J.M., Alfonso F.: Apical thrombus associated with left ventricular apical ballooning. Heart 2003; 89: 927.
43. Madhavan M., Rihal C.S., Lerman A. et al.: Acute heart failure in apical ballooning syndrome (TakoTsubo/stress cardiomyopathy): clinical correlates and Mayo Clinic risk score. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2011; 57: 1400.
44. Ogura R., Hiasa Y., Takahashi T. et al.: Specific findings of the standard 12-lead ECG in patients with ‘Takotsubo’ cardiomyopathy: comparison with the findings of acute anterior myocardial infarction. Circ. J. 2003; 67: 687.
45. Sharkey S.W., Lesser J.R., Menon M. et al.: Spectrum and significance of electrocardiographic patterns, troponin levels, and thrombolysis in myocardial infarction frame count in patients with stress (tako-tsubo) cardiomyopathy and comparison to those in patients with ST-elevation anterior wall myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol. 2008; 101: 1723.
46. Dib C., Asirvatham S., Elesber A. et al.: Clinical correlates and prognostic significance of electrocardiographic abnormalities in apical ballooning syndrome (Takotsubo/stress-induced cardiomyopathy). Am. Heart J. 2009; 157: 933.
47. Heubach J.F., Ravens U., Kaumann A.J.: Epinephrine activates both Gs and Gi pathways, but norepinephrine activates only the Gs pathway through human beta2-adrenoceptors overexpressed in mouse heart. Mol. Pharmacol. 2004; 65: 1313.
48. Villareal R.P., Achari A., Wilansky S. et al.: Anteroapical stunning and left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2001; 76: 79.
49. Eitel I., Behrendt F., Schindler K. et al.: Differential diagnosis of suspected apical ballooning syndrome using contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Eur. Heart J. 2008; 29: 2651.
50. Hoyt J., Lerman A., Lennon R.J. et al.: Left anterior descending artery length and coronary atherosclerosis in apical ballooning syndrome (Takotsubo/stress induced cardiomyopathy). Int. J. Cardiol. 2010; 145: 112.
51. Elesber A.A., Prasad A., Bybee K.A. et al.: Transient cardiac apical ballooning syndrome: prevalence and clinical implications of right ventricular involvement. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006; 47: 1082.
52. Haghi D., Athanasiadis A., Papavassiliu T. et al.: Right ventricular involvement in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 2006; 27: 2433.
53. Avegliano G., Huguet M., Costabel J.P. et al.: Morphologic pattern of late gadolinium enhancement in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy detected by early cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Clin. Cardiol. 2011; 34: 178e82.
54. Previtali M., Repetto A., Panigada S. et al.: Left ventricular apical ballooning syndrome: prevalence, clinical characteristics and pathogenetic mechanisms in a European population. Int. J. Cardiol. 2009; 134: 91e6.
55. Padayachee L.: Levosimendan: the inotrope of choice in cardiogenic shock secondary to takotsubo cardiomyopathy? Heart Lung Circ. 2007; 16: S65e70.
56. Edes I., Kiss E., Kitada Y. et al.: Effects of levosimendan, a cardiotonic agent targeted to troponin C, on cardiac func- tion and on phosphorylation and Ca2+ sensitivity of cardiac myofibrils and sarcoplasmic reticulum in guinea pig heart. Circ. Res. 1995; 77: 107-113.
57. Pollesello P., Ovaska M., Kaivola J. et al.: Binding of a new Ca2+ sensitizer, levosimendan, to recombinant human car- diac troponin C: a molecular modeling, fluorescence pro- be, and proton nuclear magnetic resonance study. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 28584-28590.
58. Hasenfuss G., Pieske B., Castell M. et al.: Influence of the novel inotropic agent levosimendan on isometric tension and calcium cycling in failing human myocardium. Circulation 1998; 98: 2141-2147.
59. Kaheinen P., Pollesello P., Levijoki J. et al.: Levosimendan increases diastolic coronary flow in isolated guinea-pig heart by opening ATP-sensitive potassium channels. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2001; 37: 367-374.
60. Lilleberg J., Niemenen M.S., Akkila J. et al.: Effects of a new calcium sensitiser, levosimendan, on haemodynamics, coronary blood flow and myocardial substrate utilization early after coronary artery bypass grafting. Eur. Heart J. 1998; 19: 660-668.
61. Strunk B., Shaw R.E., Bull S. et al.: High incidence of focal left ventricular wall motion abnormalities and normal coronary arteries in patients with myocardial infarctions presenting to a community hospital. J. Invasive Cardiol. 2006; 18: 376-381.
62. Wedekind H., Moller K., Scholz K.H.: Tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy. Incidence in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Herz 2006; 31: 339-346.
63. Prasad A., Lerman A., Rihal C.S.: Apical ballooning syndrome (Tako-Tsubo or stress cardiomyopathy): a mimic of acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 2008; 155: 408-417.
64. D’Errico S., Neri M., Nieddu A. et al.: Cardiac beta1-adrenoceptor expression in two stress-induced cardiomyopathy-related deaths. Forensic Sci. Int. 2011; 207: e8-e11.
65. Ortak J., Khattab K., Barantke M. et al.: Evolution of cardiac autonomic nervous activity indices in patients presenting with transient left ventricular apical ballooning. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 2009; 32(Suppl. 1): S21-S25.
66. Prasad A., Madhavan M., Chareonthaitawee P.: Cardiac sympathetic activity in stress-induced (Takotsubo) cardiomyopathy. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 2009; 6: 430-434.
67. Burgdorf C., von Hof K., Schunkert H. et al.: Regional alterations in myocardial sympathetic innervation in patients with transient left-ventricular apical ballooning (Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy). J. Nucl. Cardiol. 2008; 15: 65-72.
68. Moriya M., Mori H., Suzuki N. et al.: Six-month follow-up of takotsubo cardiomyopathy with I-123-beta-metyl-iodophenyl pentadecanoic acid and I-123-meta-iodobenzyl-guanidine myocardial scintigraphy. Intern. Med. 2002; 41: 829-833.
69. Lyon A.R., Rees P.S., Prasad S. et al.: Stress (Takotsubo) cardiomyopathy: a novel pathophysiological hypothesis to explain catecholamine-induced acute myocardial stunning. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 2008; 5: 22-29.
2. Bybee K.A., Kara T., Prasad A. et al.: Systematic review: transient left ventricular apical ballooning: a syndrome that mimics ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004; 141: 858.
3. Tsuchihashi K., Ueshima K., Uchida T. et al.: Transient left ventricular apical ballooning without coronary artery stenosis: a novel heart syndrome mimicking acute myocardial infarction. Angina Pectoris-Myocardial Infarction Investigations in Japan. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2001; 38: 11.
4. Abe Y., Kondo M., Matsuoka R. et al.: Assessment of clinical features in transient left ventricular apical ballooning. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003; 41: 737.
5. Hachamovitch R., Chang J.D., Kuntz R.E. et al.: Recurrent reversible cardiogenic shock triggered by emotional distress with no obstructive coronary disease. Am. Heart J. 1995; 129: 1026.
6. Sharkey S.W., Lesser J.R., Zenovich A.G. et al.: Acute and reversible cardiomyopathy provoked by stress in women from the United States. Circulation 2005; 111: 472.
7. Wittstein I.S., Thiemann D.R., Lima J.A. et al.: Neurohumoral features of myocardial stunning due to sudden emotional stress. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005; 352: 539.
8. Desmet W.J., Adriaenssens B.F., Dens J.A.: Apical ballooning of the left ventricle: first series in white patients. Heart 2003; 89: 1027.
9. Bybee K.A., Prasad A., Barsness G.W. et al.: Clinical characteristics and thrombolysis in myocardial infarction frame counts in women with transient left ventricular apical ballooning syndrome. Am. J. Cardiol. 2004; 94: 343.
10. Dec G.W.: Recognition of the apical ballooning syndrome in the United States. Circulation 2005; 111: 388.
11. Aurigemma G.P., Tighe D.A.: Echocardiography and reversible left ventricular dysfunction. Am. J. Med. 2006; 119: 18.
12. Bybee K.A., Prasad A.: Stress-related cardiomyopathy syndromes. Circulation 2008; 118: 397.
13. Prasad A., Lerman A., Rihal C.S.: Apical ballooning syndrome (Tako-Tsubo or stress cardiomyopathy): a mimic of acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 2008; 155: 408.
14. Akashi Y.J., Goldstein D.S., Barbaro G., Ueyama T.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a new form of acute, reversible heart failure. Circulation 2008; 118: 2754.
15. Kurowski V., Kaiser A., von Hof K. et al.: Apical and midventricular transient left ventricular dysfunction syndrome (tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy): frequency, mechanisms, and prognosis. Chest 2007; 132: 809.
16. Eitel I., von Knobelsdorff-Brenkenhoff F., Bernhardt P. et al.: Clinical characteristics and cardiovascular magnetic resonance findings in stress (takotsubo) cardiomyopathy. JAMA 2011; 306: 277.
17. Watanabe H., Kodama M., Okura Y. et al.: Impact of earthquakes on Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. JAMA 2005; 294: 305.
18. Paur H., Wright P.T., Sikkel M.B. et al.: High levels of circulating epinephrine trigger apical cardiodepression in β2-adrenergic receptor/Gi-dependent manner: a new model of Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2012; 126: 697.
19. Ibanez B., Navarro F., Cordoba M. et al.: Tako-tsubo transient left ventricular apical ballooning: is intravascular ultrasound the key to resolve the enigma? Heart 2005; 91: 102.
20. Haghi D., Roehm S., Hamm K. et al.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy is not due to plaque rupture: an intravascular ultrasound study. Clin. Cardiol. 2010; 33: 307.
21. Delgado G.A., Truesdell A.G., Kirchner R.M. et al.: An angiographic and intravascular ultrasound study of the left anterior descending coronary artery in takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 2011; 108: 888.
22. Gianni M., Dentali F., Grandi A.M. et al.: Apical ballooning syndrome or takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a systematic review. Eur. Heart J. 2006; 27: 1523.
23. Nef H.M., Möllmann H., Kostin S. et al.: Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy: intraindividual structural analysis in the acute phase and after functional recovery. Eur. Heart J. 2007; 28: 2456.
24. Sharkey S.W., Windenburg D.C., Lesser J.R. et al.: Natural history and expansive clinical profile of stress (tako- tsubo) cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55: 333.
25. Ito K., Sugihara H., Katoh S. et al.: Assessment of Takotsubo (ampulla) cardiomyopathy using 99mTc-tetrofosmin myocardial SPECT-comparison with acute coronary syndrome. Ann. Nucl. Med. 2003; 17(2): 115.
26. Akashi Y.J., Nakazawa K., Sakakibara M. et al.: 123I-MIBG myocardial scintigraphy in patients with “takotsubo” cardiomyopathy. J. Nucl. Med. 2004; 45: 1121.
27. Kurisu S., Inoue I., Kawagoe T. et al.: Time course of electrocardiographic changes in patients with tako-tsubo syndrome: comparison with acute myocardial infarction with minimal enzymatic release. Circ. J. 2004; 68: 77.
28. Ueyama T.: Emotional stress-induced Tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy: animal model and molecular mechanism. Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 2004; 1018: 437.
29. Kassim T.A., Clarke D.D., Mai V.Q. et al.: Catecholamine-induced cardiomyopathy. Endocr. Pract. 2008; 14: 1137.
30. Ako J., Sudhir K., Farouque H.M. et al.: Transient left ventricular dysfunction under severe stress: brain-hear relationship revisited. Am. J. Med. 2006; 119: 10.
31. Kurisu S., Sato H., Kawagoe T. et al.: Tako-tsubo-like left ventricular dysfunction with ST-segment elevation: a novel cardiac syndrome mimicking acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 2002; 143: 448.
32. Karch S.B., Billingham M.E.: Myocardial contraction bands revisited. Hum. Pathol. 1986; 17: 9.
33. Fineschi V., Silver M.D., Karch S.B. et al.: Myocardial disarray: an architectural disorganization linked with adrenergic stress? Int. J. Cardiol. 2005; 99: 277.
34. Pison L., De Vusser P., Mullens W.: Apical ballooning in relatives. Heart 2004; 90: e67.
35. Kumar G., Holmes D.R. Jr, Prasad A.: “Familial” apical ballooning syndrome (Takotsubo cardiomyopathy). Int. Cardiol. 2010; 144: 444.
36. Handy A.D., Prasad A., Olson T.M.: Investigating genetic variation of adrenergic receptors in familial stress cardiomyopathy (apical ballooning syndrome). J. Cardiol. 2009; 54: 516.
37. Sharkey S.W., Maron B.J., Nelson P. et al.: Adrenergic receptor polymorphisms in patients with stress (tako-tsubo) cardiomyopathy. J. Cardiol. 2009; 53: 53.
38. Summers M.R., Lennon R.J., Prasad A.: Pre-morbid psychiatric and cardiovascular diseases in apical ballooning syndrome (tako-tsubo/stress-induced cardiomyopathy): potential pre-disposing factors? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55: 700.
39. Park J.H., Kang S.J., Song J.K. et al.: Left ventricular apical ballooning due to severe physical stress in patients admitted to the medical ICU. Chest 2005; 128: 296.
40. Matsuoka K., Okubo S., Fujii E. et al.: Evaluation of the arrhythmogenecity of stress-induced “Takotsubo cardiomyopathy” from the time course of the 12-lead surface electrocardiogram. Am. J. Cardiol. 2003; 92: 230.
41. Villareal R.P., Achari A., Wilansky S. et al.: Anteroapical stunning and left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2001; 76: 79.
42. Barrera-Ramirez C.F., Jimenez-Mazuecos J.M., Alfonso F.: Apical thrombus associated with left ventricular apical ballooning. Heart 2003; 89: 927.
43. Madhavan M., Rihal C.S., Lerman A. et al.: Acute heart failure in apical ballooning syndrome (TakoTsubo/stress cardiomyopathy): clinical correlates and Mayo Clinic risk score. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2011; 57: 1400.
44. Ogura R., Hiasa Y., Takahashi T. et al.: Specific findings of the standard 12-lead ECG in patients with ‘Takotsubo’ cardiomyopathy: comparison with the findings of acute anterior myocardial infarction. Circ. J. 2003; 67: 687.
45. Sharkey S.W., Lesser J.R., Menon M. et al.: Spectrum and significance of electrocardiographic patterns, troponin levels, and thrombolysis in myocardial infarction frame count in patients with stress (tako-tsubo) cardiomyopathy and comparison to those in patients with ST-elevation anterior wall myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol. 2008; 101: 1723.
46. Dib C., Asirvatham S., Elesber A. et al.: Clinical correlates and prognostic significance of electrocardiographic abnormalities in apical ballooning syndrome (Takotsubo/stress-induced cardiomyopathy). Am. Heart J. 2009; 157: 933.
47. Heubach J.F., Ravens U., Kaumann A.J.: Epinephrine activates both Gs and Gi pathways, but norepinephrine activates only the Gs pathway through human beta2-adrenoceptors overexpressed in mouse heart. Mol. Pharmacol. 2004; 65: 1313.
48. Villareal R.P., Achari A., Wilansky S. et al.: Anteroapical stunning and left ventricular outflow tract obstruction. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2001; 76: 79.
49. Eitel I., Behrendt F., Schindler K. et al.: Differential diagnosis of suspected apical ballooning syndrome using contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging. Eur. Heart J. 2008; 29: 2651.
50. Hoyt J., Lerman A., Lennon R.J. et al.: Left anterior descending artery length and coronary atherosclerosis in apical ballooning syndrome (Takotsubo/stress induced cardiomyopathy). Int. J. Cardiol. 2010; 145: 112.
51. Elesber A.A., Prasad A., Bybee K.A. et al.: Transient cardiac apical ballooning syndrome: prevalence and clinical implications of right ventricular involvement. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006; 47: 1082.
52. Haghi D., Athanasiadis A., Papavassiliu T. et al.: Right ventricular involvement in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 2006; 27: 2433.
53. Avegliano G., Huguet M., Costabel J.P. et al.: Morphologic pattern of late gadolinium enhancement in Takotsubo cardiomyopathy detected by early cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Clin. Cardiol. 2011; 34: 178e82.
54. Previtali M., Repetto A., Panigada S. et al.: Left ventricular apical ballooning syndrome: prevalence, clinical characteristics and pathogenetic mechanisms in a European population. Int. J. Cardiol. 2009; 134: 91e6.
55. Padayachee L.: Levosimendan: the inotrope of choice in cardiogenic shock secondary to takotsubo cardiomyopathy? Heart Lung Circ. 2007; 16: S65e70.
56. Edes I., Kiss E., Kitada Y. et al.: Effects of levosimendan, a cardiotonic agent targeted to troponin C, on cardiac func- tion and on phosphorylation and Ca2+ sensitivity of cardiac myofibrils and sarcoplasmic reticulum in guinea pig heart. Circ. Res. 1995; 77: 107-113.
57. Pollesello P., Ovaska M., Kaivola J. et al.: Binding of a new Ca2+ sensitizer, levosimendan, to recombinant human car- diac troponin C: a molecular modeling, fluorescence pro- be, and proton nuclear magnetic resonance study. J. Biol. Chem. 1994; 269: 28584-28590.
58. Hasenfuss G., Pieske B., Castell M. et al.: Influence of the novel inotropic agent levosimendan on isometric tension and calcium cycling in failing human myocardium. Circulation 1998; 98: 2141-2147.
59. Kaheinen P., Pollesello P., Levijoki J. et al.: Levosimendan increases diastolic coronary flow in isolated guinea-pig heart by opening ATP-sensitive potassium channels. J. Cardiovasc. Pharmacol. 2001; 37: 367-374.
60. Lilleberg J., Niemenen M.S., Akkila J. et al.: Effects of a new calcium sensitiser, levosimendan, on haemodynamics, coronary blood flow and myocardial substrate utilization early after coronary artery bypass grafting. Eur. Heart J. 1998; 19: 660-668.
61. Strunk B., Shaw R.E., Bull S. et al.: High incidence of focal left ventricular wall motion abnormalities and normal coronary arteries in patients with myocardial infarctions presenting to a community hospital. J. Invasive Cardiol. 2006; 18: 376-381.
62. Wedekind H., Moller K., Scholz K.H.: Tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy. Incidence in patients with acute coronary syndrome. Herz 2006; 31: 339-346.
63. Prasad A., Lerman A., Rihal C.S.: Apical ballooning syndrome (Tako-Tsubo or stress cardiomyopathy): a mimic of acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 2008; 155: 408-417.
64. D’Errico S., Neri M., Nieddu A. et al.: Cardiac beta1-adrenoceptor expression in two stress-induced cardiomyopathy-related deaths. Forensic Sci. Int. 2011; 207: e8-e11.
65. Ortak J., Khattab K., Barantke M. et al.: Evolution of cardiac autonomic nervous activity indices in patients presenting with transient left ventricular apical ballooning. Pacing Clin. Electrophysiol. 2009; 32(Suppl. 1): S21-S25.
66. Prasad A., Madhavan M., Chareonthaitawee P.: Cardiac sympathetic activity in stress-induced (Takotsubo) cardiomyopathy. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 2009; 6: 430-434.
67. Burgdorf C., von Hof K., Schunkert H. et al.: Regional alterations in myocardial sympathetic innervation in patients with transient left-ventricular apical ballooning (Tako-Tsubo cardiomyopathy). J. Nucl. Cardiol. 2008; 15: 65-72.
68. Moriya M., Mori H., Suzuki N. et al.: Six-month follow-up of takotsubo cardiomyopathy with I-123-beta-metyl-iodophenyl pentadecanoic acid and I-123-meta-iodobenzyl-guanidine myocardial scintigraphy. Intern. Med. 2002; 41: 829-833.
69. Lyon A.R., Rees P.S., Prasad S. et al.: Stress (Takotsubo) cardiomyopathy: a novel pathophysiological hypothesis to explain catecholamine-induced acute myocardial stunning. Nat. Clin. Pract. Cardiovasc. Med. 2008; 5: 22-29.