The role of echocardiography versus cardiac magnetic resonance in the cardiovascular diseases assessment Review article
Article Sidebar
Published:
Apr 4, 2016
Keywords:
cardiac magnetic resonance, echocardiography, cardiac imaging
Main Article Content
Abstract
Both echocardiography and cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) are non-invasive modalities with minimal risk for patients, using no ionizing radiation. Echocardiography surpasses other imaging modalities in its mobility and availability to obtain real-time visualization. When using CMR, there are fewer limitations caused by body habitus. Both methods allow for assessment of cardiovascular anatomy, structure and function of the heart muscle, but CMR is able to characterize myocardial tissue composition and define the course and orientation of coronary arteries.
Performing echocardiography during acute chest pain can be useful in confirmation of myocardial infarction. Echocardiography is first-line method for diagnosing the majority of cardiomyopathies. However, CMR is especially useful in confirmation of arrythmogenic right ventricle cardiomyopathy because of lack of standardized echocardiographic criteria. Also myocarditis is better visualized with the use of CMR. Moreover, CMR is considered a gold standard technique for characterization of cardiac mass. Nevertheless, echocardiography plays a major role in confirming the diagnosis and assessing the severity of valvular heart disease, congenital heart disease and majority of pericardial diseases.
In most cases, echocardiography is the method of choice while confirming the diagnosis because of its availability. However, in some situations, CMR is a more valuable modality. We presented advantages of both methods in specific clinical situations.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
Article Details
How to Cite
Wiligórska , N., Wiligórska , D., Możeńska , O., Bil , J., & Kosior , D. A. (2016). The role of echocardiography versus cardiac magnetic resonance in the cardiovascular diseases assessment. Cardiology in Practice, 10(1), 29-51. Retrieved from https://journalsmededu.pl/index.php/kwp/article/view/1294
Issue
Section
Articles
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright: © Medical Education sp. z o.o. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
Address reprint requests to: Medical Education, Marcin Kuźma (marcin.kuzma@mededu.pl)
References
1. Lancellotti P., Price S., Edvardsen T. et al.: The use of echocardiography in acute cardiovascular care: recommendations of the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging and the Acute Cardiovascular Care Association. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging. 2015; 16(2): 119-146.
2. Silvestry F.E., Kerber R.E., Brook M.M. et al.: Echocardiography-guided interventions. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2009; 22(3): 213-231.
3. Neskovic A.N., Hagendorff A., Lancelotti P. et al.: Emergency echocardiography: the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging recommendations. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging. 2013; 14(1): 1-11.
4. Woodard P.K., Bluemke D.A., Cascade P.N. et al.: ACR practice guideline for the performance and interpretation of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). J. Am. Coll. Radiol. 2006; 3(9): 665-676.
5. Kilner P.J., Geva T., Kaemmerer H. et al.: Recommendations for cardiovascular magnetic resonance in adults with congenital heart disease from the respective working groups of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 2010; 31(7): 794-805.
6. Hundley W.G., Bluemke D.A., Finn J.P. et al.: ACCF/ACR/AHA/NASCI/SCMR 2010 expert consensus document on cardiovascular magnetic resonance: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Expert Consensus Documents. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55(23): 2614-2662.
7. Oh J.K., Seward J.B., Tajik A.J.: The Echo Manual. 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2006.
8. Mulvagh S.L., Rakowski H., Vannan M.A. et al.: American Society of Echocardiography Consensus Statement on the Clinical Applications of Ultrasonic Contrast Agents in Echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2008; 21(11): 1179-1201.
9. Lang R.M., Bierig M., Devereux R.B. et al.: Recommendations for chamber quantification: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography’s Guidelines and Standards Committee and the Chamber Quantification Writing Group, developed in conjunction with the European Association of Echocardiography, a branch of the European Society of Cardiology. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2005; 18(12): 1440-1463.
10. Bonow R.O., Mann D.L., Zipes D.P., Libby P.: Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 9 ed. Vol. 1. Elsevier, Philadelphia 2012.
11. Yu C.M., Zhang Q., Fung J.W. et al.: A novel tool to assess systolic asynchrony and identify responders of cardiac resynchronization therapy by tissue synchronization imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005; 45(5): 677-684.
12. Oh J.K., Halte L., Tajik A.K., Little W.C.: Diastolic heart failure can be diagnosed by comprehensive two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006; 47(3): 500-506.
13. Little W.C., Oh J.K.: Echocardiographic evaluation of diastolic function can be used to guide clinical care. Circulation 2009; 120(9): 802-809.
14. Kurt M., Shaikh K.A., Peterson L. et al.: Impact of contrast echocardiography on evaluation of ventricular function and clinical management in a large prospective cohort. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009; 53(9): 802-810.
15. Badano L.P., Boccalini F., Muraru D. et al.: Current clinical applications of transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography. J. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound. 2012; 20(1): 1-22.
16. AHA Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Basic MRI Physics. Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey 2008: 1-32.
17. Nazarian S., Halperin H.R.: How to perform magnetic resonance imaging on patients with implantable cardiac arrhythmia devices. Heart Rhythm 2009; 6(1): 138-143.
18. Roguin A., Schwitter J., Vahlhaus C. et al.: Magnetic resonance imaging in individuals with cardiovascular implantable electronic devices. Europace 2008; 10(3): 336-346.
19. Montalescot G., Sechtem U., Achenbach S. et al.; Task Force Members: 2013 ESC guidelines on the management of stable coronary artery disease: the Task Force on the management of stable coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 2013; 34(38): 2949-3003.
20. Kaul S., Senior R., Firschke C. et al.: Incremental value of cardiac imaging in patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain and without ST-segment elevation: a multicenter study. Am. Heart J. 2004; 148(1): 129-136.
21. Park S.M., Miyazaki C., Parasad A. et al.: Feasibility of prediction of myocardial viability with Doppler tissue imaging following percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation anterior myocardial infarction. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2009; 22(2): 183-189.
22. Linka A.Z., Ates G., Wei K. et al.: Three-dimensional myocardial contrast echocardiography: validation of in vivo risk and infarct volumes. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1997; 30(7): 1892-1899.
23. Lang R.M., Badano L.P., Tsag W. et al.: EAE/ASE recommendations for image acquisition and display using three-dimensional echocardiography. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2012; 13(1): 1-46.
24. Kim R.J., Shah D.J.: Fundamental concepts in myocardial viability assessment revisited: when knowing how much is “alive” is not enough. Heart 2004; 90(2): 137-140.
25. Ripley D.P., Motwani M., Plein S., Greenwood J.P.: Established and emerging cardiovascular magnetic resonance techniques for the assessment of stable coronary heart disease and acute coronary syndromes. Quant. Imaging Med. Surg. 2014; 4(5): 330-344.
26. Yang Q., Li K., Liu X. et al.: Contrast-enhanced whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography at 3.0-T: a comparative study with X-ray angiography in a single center. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009; 54(1): 69-76.
27. Kwong R.Y., Chan A.K., Brown K.A. et al.: Impact of unrecognized myocardial scar detected by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging on event-free survival in patients presenting with signs or symptoms of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2006; 113(23): 2733-2743.
28. Cheong B.Y., Muthupillai R., Wilson J.M. et al.: Prognostic significance of delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging: survival of 857 patients with and without left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2009; 120(21): 2069-2076.
29. Schmidt A., Azevedo C.F., Cheng A. et al.: Infarct tissue heterogeneity by magnetic resonance imaging identifies enhanced cardiac arrhythmia susceptibility in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2007; 115(15): 2006-2014.
30. Yuan C., Kerwin W.S.: MRI of atherosclerosis. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2004; 19(6): 710-719.
31. Pennell D.J., Sechtem U.P., Higgins C.B. et al.: Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report. Eur. Heart J. 2004; 25(21): 1940-1965.
32. Rickers C., Wilke N.M., Jerosch-Herold M. et al.: Utility of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2005; 112(6): 855-861.
33. Salustri A., Kofflard M.J., Roelandt J.R. et al.: Assessment of left ventricular outflow in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy using anyplane and paraplane analysis of three-dimensional echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 1996; 78(4): 462-468.
34. Song J.M., Fukufa S., Lever H.M. et al.: Asymmetry of systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: a real-time three-dimensional echocardiographic study. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2006; 19(9): 1129-1135.
35. Afonso L.C., Bernal J., Bax J.J. et al.: Echocardiography in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the role of conventional and emerging technologies. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2008; 1(6): 787-800.
36. de Gregorio C., Recupero A., Grimaldi P. et al.: Can transthoracic live 3-dimensional echocardiography improve the recognition of midventricular obliteration in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy? J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2006; 19(9): 1190.e1-4.
37. Thomas D.E., Wheeler R., Yousef Z.R., Masani N.D.: The role of echocardiography in guiding management in dilated cardiomyopathy. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 2009; 10(8): iii15-21.
38. Mestroni L., Maisch B., McKenna W.J. et al.: Guidelines for the study of familial dilated cardiomyopathies. Collaborative Research Group of the European Human and Capital Mobility Project on Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 1999; 20(2): 93-102.
39. Shiota T., McCarthy P.M., White R.D. et al.: Initial clinical experience of real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with ischemic and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 1999; 84(9): 1068-1073.
40. Geil S., Rao L., Menzel T. et al.: [Determination of left ventricular mass by transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy]. Z. Kardiol. 1999; 88(11): 922-931.
41. Rao L., Geil S., Zeng Z. et al.: [Transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography for determination of left ventricular mass in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy]. Hua Xi Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao 2000; 31(3): 376-379.
42. Mu Y., Chen L., Tang Q., Ayoufu G.: Real time three-dimensional echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular regional systolic function and dyssynchrony in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Echocardiography 2010; 27(4): 415-420.
43. Belloni E., De Cobelli F., Esposito A. et al.: MRI of cardiomyopathy. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 2008; 191(6): 1702-1710.
44. Quarta G., Sado D.M., Moon J.C.: Cardiomyopathies: focus on cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Br. J. Radiol. 2011; 84(Spec. No. 3): S296-305.
45. McKenna W.J., Thiene G., Nava A. et al.: Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Task Force of the Working Group Myocardial and Pericardial Disease of the European Society of Cardiology and of the Scientific Council on Cardiomyopathies of the International Society and Federation of Cardiology. Br. Heart J. 1994; 71(3): 215-218.
46. Limongelli G., Rea A., Masarone D. et al.: Right ventricular cardiomyopathies: a multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis. Echocardiography 2015; 32(suppl. 1): S75-94.
47. Prakasa K.R., Dalal D., Wang J. et al.: Feasibility and variability of three dimensional echocardiography in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/ cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 2006; 97(5): 703-709.
48. Kjaergaard J., Hastrup Svedsen J., Sogaard P. et al.: Advanced quantitative echocardiography in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2007; 20(1): 27-35.
49. Kjaergaard J.: Assessment of right ventricular systolic function by tissue Doppler echocardiography. Dan. Med. J. 2012; 59(3): B4409.
50. Bhave N.M., Patel A.R., Weinert L. et al.: Three-dimensional modeling of the right ventricle from two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic images: utility of knowledge-based reconstruction in pulmonary arterial hypertension. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2013; 26(8): 860-867.
51. Dragulescu A., Grosse-Wortmann L., Fackoury C., Mertens L.: Echocardiographic assessment of right ventricular volumes: a comparison of different techniques in children after surgical repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2012; 13(7): 596-604.
52. Mast T.P., Teske A.J., Doevendans P.A., Cramer M.J.: Current and future role of echocardiography in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Cardiol. J. 2015; 22(4): 362-374.
53. Marcus F.I., McKenna W.J., Sherrill D. et al.: Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: proposed modification of the Task Force Criteria. Eur. Heart J. 2010; 31(7): 806-814.
54. Nihoyannopoulos P., Dawson D.: Restrictive cardiomyopathies. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 2009; 10(8): iii23-33.
55. Wood M.J., Picard M.H.: Utility of echocardiography in the evaluation of individuals with cardiomyopathy. Heart 2004; 90(6): 707-712.
56. Rapezzi C., Arbustini E., Caforio A.L. et al.: Diagnostic work-up in cardiomyopathies: bridging the gap between clinical phenotypes and final diagnosis. A position statement from the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. Eur. Heart J. 2013; 34(19): 1448-1458.
57. Hatle L.K., Appleton C.P., Popp R.L.: Differentiation of constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathy by Doppler echocardiography. Circulation 1989; 79(2): 357-370.
58. Nucci E.M., Lisi M., Cameli M. et al.: The role of 3D and speckle tracking echocardiography in cardiac amyloidosis: a case report. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2014; 18(1): 74-77.
59. Sun J.P., Stewart W.J., Yang X.S. et al.: Differentiation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and cardiac amyloidosis from other causes of ventricular wall thickening by two-dimensional strain imaging echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 2009; 103(3): 411-415.
60. Zeng X., Shu X.H., Pan C.Z. et al.: Assessment of left ventricular systolic synchronicity by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.) 2006; 119(11): 919-924.
61. Baccouche H., Maunz M., Beck T. et al.: Differentiating cardiac amyloidosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy by use of three-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography. Echocardiography 2012; 29(6): 668-677.
62. Maisch B., Seferović P.M., Ristić A.D. et al.: Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases executive summary; The Task force on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases of the European society of cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 2004; 25(7): 587-610.
63. Weiford B.C., Subbarao V.D., Mulhern K.M.: Noncompaction of the ventricular myocardium. Circulation 2004; 109(24): 2965-2971.
64. Jenni R., Oechslin E., Schneider J. et al.: Echocardiographic and pathoanatomical characteristics of isolated left ventricular non-compaction: a step towards classification as a distinct cardiomyopathy. Heart 2001; 86(6): 666-671.
65. Espinola-Zavaleta N., Soto M.E., Castellanos L.M et al.: Non-compacted cardiomyopathy: clinical-echocardiographic study. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 2006; 4: 35.
66. Belghiti H., Aouad A., Arharbi M.: Suspected left-ventricular non-compaction on two- and three-dimensional echocardiography: is it always clear? Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2008; 101(5): 373-374.
67. Baker G.H., Pereira N.L., Hlavacek A.M. et al.: Transthoracic real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in the diagnosis and description of noncompaction of ventricular myocardium. Echocardiography 2006; 23(6): 490-494.
68. Song Z.Z.: Echocardiography in the diagnosis left ventricular noncompaction. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound. 2008; 6: 64.
69. Martin M., Barriales V., Corros C., Santamarta E.: Usefulness of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2011; 13(5): 577.
70. Citro R., Lyon A.R., Meimoun P. et al.: Standard and advanced echocardiography in takotsubo (stress) cardiomyopathy: clinical and prognostic implications. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2015; 28(1): 57-74.
71. Grabowski M., Piatkowski R., Scislo P. et al.: Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in transient left apical ballooning syndrome. Int. J. Cardiol. 2008; 129(3): e69-70.
72. Schoof S., Bertram H., Hohmann D. et al.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in a 2-year-old girl: 3-dimensional visualization of reversible left ventricular dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55(3): e5.
73. Meimoun P., Malaqun D., Benali T. et al.: Transient impairment of coronary flow reserve in tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy is related to left ventricular systolic parameters. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 2009; 10(2): 265-270.
74. Breithardt O.A., Becker M., Kalsch T., Haghi D.: Follow-up in Tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography. Heart 2008; 94(2): 210.
75. Andrade A.A., Stainback R.F.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Tex. Heart Inst. J. 2014; 41(3): 299-303.
76. Kohan A.A., Levy Yeyati E., De Stefano L. et al.: Usefulness of MRI in takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a review of the literature. Cardiovasc. Diagn. Ther. 2014; 4(2): 138-146.
77. Friedrich M.G., Marcotte F.: Cardiac magnetic resonance assessment of myocarditis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2013; 6(5): 833-839.
78. Goitein O., Matetzky S., Beinart R. et al.: Acute myocarditis: noninvasive evaluation with cardiac MRI and transthoracic echocardiography. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 2009; 192(1): 254-258.
79. Lobo A., Lewis J.F., Conti C.R.: Intracardiac masses detected by echocardiography: case presentations and review of the literature. Clin. Cardiol. 2000; 23(9): 702-708.
80. Ragland M.M., Tak T.: The role of echocardiography in diagnosing space-occupying lesions of the heart. Clin. Med. Res. 2006; 4(1): 22-32.
81. Mugge A., Daniel W.G., Haverich A., Lichtlen P.R.: Diagnosis of noninfective cardiac mass lesions by two-dimensional echocardiography. Comparison of the transthoracic and transesophageal approaches. Circulation 1991: 83(1): 70-78.
82. Hoey E.T., Shahid M., Ganeshan A. et al.: MRI assessment of cardiac tumours: part 1, multiparametric imaging protocols and spectrum of appearances of histologically benign lesions. Quant. Imaging Med. Surg. 2014; 4(6): 478-488.
83. Hoffmann U., Globits S., Frank H.: Cardiac and paracardiac masses. Current opinion on diagnostic evaluation by magnetic resonance imaging. Eur. Heart J. 1998; 19(4): 553-563.
84. Vahanian A., Alfieri O., Andreotti F. et al.: [Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). The Joint Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS)]. G. Ital. Cardiol. (Rome) 2013; 14(3): 167-214.
85. Lang R.M., Mor-Avi V., Sugeng L. et al.: Three-dimensional echocardiography: the benefits of the additional dimension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006; 48(10): 2053-2069.
86. Hirsch R., Kilner P.J., Connelly M.S. et al.: Diagnosis in adolescents and adults with congenital heart disease. Prospective assessment of individual and combined roles of magnetic resonance imaging and transesophageal echocardiography. Circulation 1994; 90(6): 2937-2951.
87. Ntsinjana H.N., Hughes M.L., Taylor A.M.: The role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in pediatric congenital heart disease. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2011; 13: 51.
88. Baumgartner H., Bonhoeffer P., De Groot N.M. et al.: ESC Guidelines for the management of grown-up congenital heart disease (new version 2010). Eur. Heart J. 2010; 31(23): 2915-2957.
89. Minette M.S., Sahn D.J.: Ventricular septal defects. Circulation 2006; 114(20): 2190-2197.
90. Steffens J.C., Bourne M.W., Sakuma H. et al.: Quantification of collateral blood flow in coarctation of the aorta by velocity encoded cine magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 1994; 90(2): 937-943.
91. Walsh R., Nielsen J.C., Ko H.H. et al.: Imaging of congenital coronary artery anomalies. Pediatr. Radiol. 2011; 41(12): 1526-1535.
92. McConnell M.V., Ganz P., Selwyn A.P. et al.: Identification of anomalous coronary arteries and their anatomic course by magnetic resonance coronary angiography. Circulation 1995; 92(11): 3158-3162.
93. The clinical role of magnetic resonance in cardiovascular disease. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology, in collaboration with the Association of European Paediatric Cardiologists. Eur. Heart J. 1998; 19(1): 19-39.
94. Cosyns B., Plein S., Nihoyanopoulos P. et al.: European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) position paper: Multimodality imaging in pericardial disease. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2015; 16(1): 12-31.
95. Hernandez C.M., Singh P., Hage F.G. et al.: Live/Real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic assessment of pericardial disease. Echocardiography 2009; 26(10): 1250-1263.
96. Tsang T.S., Oh J.K., Seward J.B.: Diagnosis and management of cardiac tamponade in the era of echocardiography. Clin. Cardiol. 1999; 22(7): 446-452.
97. Schwefer M., Aschenbach R., Heidemann J. et al.: Constrictive pericarditis, still a diagnostic challenge: comprehensive review of clinical management. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 2009; 36(3): 502-510.
98. Gopal A.S., Shen Z., Sapin P.M. et al.: Assessment of cardiac function by three-dimensional echocardiography compared with conventional noninvasive methods. Circulation 1995; 92(4): 842-853.
2. Silvestry F.E., Kerber R.E., Brook M.M. et al.: Echocardiography-guided interventions. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2009; 22(3): 213-231.
3. Neskovic A.N., Hagendorff A., Lancelotti P. et al.: Emergency echocardiography: the European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging recommendations. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging. 2013; 14(1): 1-11.
4. Woodard P.K., Bluemke D.A., Cascade P.N. et al.: ACR practice guideline for the performance and interpretation of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). J. Am. Coll. Radiol. 2006; 3(9): 665-676.
5. Kilner P.J., Geva T., Kaemmerer H. et al.: Recommendations for cardiovascular magnetic resonance in adults with congenital heart disease from the respective working groups of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 2010; 31(7): 794-805.
6. Hundley W.G., Bluemke D.A., Finn J.P. et al.: ACCF/ACR/AHA/NASCI/SCMR 2010 expert consensus document on cardiovascular magnetic resonance: a report of the American College of Cardiology Foundation Task Force on Expert Consensus Documents. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55(23): 2614-2662.
7. Oh J.K., Seward J.B., Tajik A.J.: The Echo Manual. 3rd ed. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia 2006.
8. Mulvagh S.L., Rakowski H., Vannan M.A. et al.: American Society of Echocardiography Consensus Statement on the Clinical Applications of Ultrasonic Contrast Agents in Echocardiography. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2008; 21(11): 1179-1201.
9. Lang R.M., Bierig M., Devereux R.B. et al.: Recommendations for chamber quantification: a report from the American Society of Echocardiography’s Guidelines and Standards Committee and the Chamber Quantification Writing Group, developed in conjunction with the European Association of Echocardiography, a branch of the European Society of Cardiology. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2005; 18(12): 1440-1463.
10. Bonow R.O., Mann D.L., Zipes D.P., Libby P.: Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 9 ed. Vol. 1. Elsevier, Philadelphia 2012.
11. Yu C.M., Zhang Q., Fung J.W. et al.: A novel tool to assess systolic asynchrony and identify responders of cardiac resynchronization therapy by tissue synchronization imaging. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005; 45(5): 677-684.
12. Oh J.K., Halte L., Tajik A.K., Little W.C.: Diastolic heart failure can be diagnosed by comprehensive two-dimensional and Doppler echocardiography. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006; 47(3): 500-506.
13. Little W.C., Oh J.K.: Echocardiographic evaluation of diastolic function can be used to guide clinical care. Circulation 2009; 120(9): 802-809.
14. Kurt M., Shaikh K.A., Peterson L. et al.: Impact of contrast echocardiography on evaluation of ventricular function and clinical management in a large prospective cohort. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009; 53(9): 802-810.
15. Badano L.P., Boccalini F., Muraru D. et al.: Current clinical applications of transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography. J. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound. 2012; 20(1): 1-22.
16. AHA Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Basic MRI Physics. Humana Press, Totowa, New Jersey 2008: 1-32.
17. Nazarian S., Halperin H.R.: How to perform magnetic resonance imaging on patients with implantable cardiac arrhythmia devices. Heart Rhythm 2009; 6(1): 138-143.
18. Roguin A., Schwitter J., Vahlhaus C. et al.: Magnetic resonance imaging in individuals with cardiovascular implantable electronic devices. Europace 2008; 10(3): 336-346.
19. Montalescot G., Sechtem U., Achenbach S. et al.; Task Force Members: 2013 ESC guidelines on the management of stable coronary artery disease: the Task Force on the management of stable coronary artery disease of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 2013; 34(38): 2949-3003.
20. Kaul S., Senior R., Firschke C. et al.: Incremental value of cardiac imaging in patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain and without ST-segment elevation: a multicenter study. Am. Heart J. 2004; 148(1): 129-136.
21. Park S.M., Miyazaki C., Parasad A. et al.: Feasibility of prediction of myocardial viability with Doppler tissue imaging following percutaneous coronary intervention for ST elevation anterior myocardial infarction. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2009; 22(2): 183-189.
22. Linka A.Z., Ates G., Wei K. et al.: Three-dimensional myocardial contrast echocardiography: validation of in vivo risk and infarct volumes. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1997; 30(7): 1892-1899.
23. Lang R.M., Badano L.P., Tsag W. et al.: EAE/ASE recommendations for image acquisition and display using three-dimensional echocardiography. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2012; 13(1): 1-46.
24. Kim R.J., Shah D.J.: Fundamental concepts in myocardial viability assessment revisited: when knowing how much is “alive” is not enough. Heart 2004; 90(2): 137-140.
25. Ripley D.P., Motwani M., Plein S., Greenwood J.P.: Established and emerging cardiovascular magnetic resonance techniques for the assessment of stable coronary heart disease and acute coronary syndromes. Quant. Imaging Med. Surg. 2014; 4(5): 330-344.
26. Yang Q., Li K., Liu X. et al.: Contrast-enhanced whole-heart coronary magnetic resonance angiography at 3.0-T: a comparative study with X-ray angiography in a single center. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009; 54(1): 69-76.
27. Kwong R.Y., Chan A.K., Brown K.A. et al.: Impact of unrecognized myocardial scar detected by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging on event-free survival in patients presenting with signs or symptoms of coronary artery disease. Circulation 2006; 113(23): 2733-2743.
28. Cheong B.Y., Muthupillai R., Wilson J.M. et al.: Prognostic significance of delayed-enhancement magnetic resonance imaging: survival of 857 patients with and without left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2009; 120(21): 2069-2076.
29. Schmidt A., Azevedo C.F., Cheng A. et al.: Infarct tissue heterogeneity by magnetic resonance imaging identifies enhanced cardiac arrhythmia susceptibility in patients with left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2007; 115(15): 2006-2014.
30. Yuan C., Kerwin W.S.: MRI of atherosclerosis. J. Magn. Reson. Imaging 2004; 19(6): 710-719.
31. Pennell D.J., Sechtem U.P., Higgins C.B. et al.: Clinical indications for cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR): Consensus Panel report. Eur. Heart J. 2004; 25(21): 1940-1965.
32. Rickers C., Wilke N.M., Jerosch-Herold M. et al.: Utility of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 2005; 112(6): 855-861.
33. Salustri A., Kofflard M.J., Roelandt J.R. et al.: Assessment of left ventricular outflow in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy using anyplane and paraplane analysis of three-dimensional echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 1996; 78(4): 462-468.
34. Song J.M., Fukufa S., Lever H.M. et al.: Asymmetry of systolic anterior motion of the mitral valve in patients with hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy: a real-time three-dimensional echocardiographic study. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2006; 19(9): 1129-1135.
35. Afonso L.C., Bernal J., Bax J.J. et al.: Echocardiography in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the role of conventional and emerging technologies. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2008; 1(6): 787-800.
36. de Gregorio C., Recupero A., Grimaldi P. et al.: Can transthoracic live 3-dimensional echocardiography improve the recognition of midventricular obliteration in hypertrophic obstructive cardiomyopathy? J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2006; 19(9): 1190.e1-4.
37. Thomas D.E., Wheeler R., Yousef Z.R., Masani N.D.: The role of echocardiography in guiding management in dilated cardiomyopathy. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 2009; 10(8): iii15-21.
38. Mestroni L., Maisch B., McKenna W.J. et al.: Guidelines for the study of familial dilated cardiomyopathies. Collaborative Research Group of the European Human and Capital Mobility Project on Familial Dilated Cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 1999; 20(2): 93-102.
39. Shiota T., McCarthy P.M., White R.D. et al.: Initial clinical experience of real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with ischemic and idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 1999; 84(9): 1068-1073.
40. Geil S., Rao L., Menzel T. et al.: [Determination of left ventricular mass by transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy]. Z. Kardiol. 1999; 88(11): 922-931.
41. Rao L., Geil S., Zeng Z. et al.: [Transthoracic three-dimensional echocardiography for determination of left ventricular mass in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy]. Hua Xi Yi Ke Da Xue Xue Bao 2000; 31(3): 376-379.
42. Mu Y., Chen L., Tang Q., Ayoufu G.: Real time three-dimensional echocardiographic assessment of left ventricular regional systolic function and dyssynchrony in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Echocardiography 2010; 27(4): 415-420.
43. Belloni E., De Cobelli F., Esposito A. et al.: MRI of cardiomyopathy. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 2008; 191(6): 1702-1710.
44. Quarta G., Sado D.M., Moon J.C.: Cardiomyopathies: focus on cardiovascular magnetic resonance. Br. J. Radiol. 2011; 84(Spec. No. 3): S296-305.
45. McKenna W.J., Thiene G., Nava A. et al.: Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Task Force of the Working Group Myocardial and Pericardial Disease of the European Society of Cardiology and of the Scientific Council on Cardiomyopathies of the International Society and Federation of Cardiology. Br. Heart J. 1994; 71(3): 215-218.
46. Limongelli G., Rea A., Masarone D. et al.: Right ventricular cardiomyopathies: a multidisciplinary approach to diagnosis. Echocardiography 2015; 32(suppl. 1): S75-94.
47. Prakasa K.R., Dalal D., Wang J. et al.: Feasibility and variability of three dimensional echocardiography in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/ cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Cardiol. 2006; 97(5): 703-709.
48. Kjaergaard J., Hastrup Svedsen J., Sogaard P. et al.: Advanced quantitative echocardiography in arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2007; 20(1): 27-35.
49. Kjaergaard J.: Assessment of right ventricular systolic function by tissue Doppler echocardiography. Dan. Med. J. 2012; 59(3): B4409.
50. Bhave N.M., Patel A.R., Weinert L. et al.: Three-dimensional modeling of the right ventricle from two-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic images: utility of knowledge-based reconstruction in pulmonary arterial hypertension. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2013; 26(8): 860-867.
51. Dragulescu A., Grosse-Wortmann L., Fackoury C., Mertens L.: Echocardiographic assessment of right ventricular volumes: a comparison of different techniques in children after surgical repair of tetralogy of Fallot. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2012; 13(7): 596-604.
52. Mast T.P., Teske A.J., Doevendans P.A., Cramer M.J.: Current and future role of echocardiography in arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia/cardiomyopathy. Cardiol. J. 2015; 22(4): 362-374.
53. Marcus F.I., McKenna W.J., Sherrill D. et al.: Diagnosis of arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy/dysplasia: proposed modification of the Task Force Criteria. Eur. Heart J. 2010; 31(7): 806-814.
54. Nihoyannopoulos P., Dawson D.: Restrictive cardiomyopathies. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 2009; 10(8): iii23-33.
55. Wood M.J., Picard M.H.: Utility of echocardiography in the evaluation of individuals with cardiomyopathy. Heart 2004; 90(6): 707-712.
56. Rapezzi C., Arbustini E., Caforio A.L. et al.: Diagnostic work-up in cardiomyopathies: bridging the gap between clinical phenotypes and final diagnosis. A position statement from the ESC Working Group on Myocardial and Pericardial Diseases. Eur. Heart J. 2013; 34(19): 1448-1458.
57. Hatle L.K., Appleton C.P., Popp R.L.: Differentiation of constrictive pericarditis and restrictive cardiomyopathy by Doppler echocardiography. Circulation 1989; 79(2): 357-370.
58. Nucci E.M., Lisi M., Cameli M. et al.: The role of 3D and speckle tracking echocardiography in cardiac amyloidosis: a case report. Eur. Rev. Med. Pharmacol. Sci. 2014; 18(1): 74-77.
59. Sun J.P., Stewart W.J., Yang X.S. et al.: Differentiation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and cardiac amyloidosis from other causes of ventricular wall thickening by two-dimensional strain imaging echocardiography. Am. J. Cardiol. 2009; 103(3): 411-415.
60. Zeng X., Shu X.H., Pan C.Z. et al.: Assessment of left ventricular systolic synchronicity by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy. Chin. Med. J. (Engl.) 2006; 119(11): 919-924.
61. Baccouche H., Maunz M., Beck T. et al.: Differentiating cardiac amyloidosis and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy by use of three-dimensional speckle tracking echocardiography. Echocardiography 2012; 29(6): 668-677.
62. Maisch B., Seferović P.M., Ristić A.D. et al.: Guidelines on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases executive summary; The Task force on the diagnosis and management of pericardial diseases of the European society of cardiology. Eur. Heart J. 2004; 25(7): 587-610.
63. Weiford B.C., Subbarao V.D., Mulhern K.M.: Noncompaction of the ventricular myocardium. Circulation 2004; 109(24): 2965-2971.
64. Jenni R., Oechslin E., Schneider J. et al.: Echocardiographic and pathoanatomical characteristics of isolated left ventricular non-compaction: a step towards classification as a distinct cardiomyopathy. Heart 2001; 86(6): 666-671.
65. Espinola-Zavaleta N., Soto M.E., Castellanos L.M et al.: Non-compacted cardiomyopathy: clinical-echocardiographic study. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound 2006; 4: 35.
66. Belghiti H., Aouad A., Arharbi M.: Suspected left-ventricular non-compaction on two- and three-dimensional echocardiography: is it always clear? Arch. Cardiovasc. Dis. 2008; 101(5): 373-374.
67. Baker G.H., Pereira N.L., Hlavacek A.M. et al.: Transthoracic real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in the diagnosis and description of noncompaction of ventricular myocardium. Echocardiography 2006; 23(6): 490-494.
68. Song Z.Z.: Echocardiography in the diagnosis left ventricular noncompaction. Cardiovasc. Ultrasound. 2008; 6: 64.
69. Martin M., Barriales V., Corros C., Santamarta E.: Usefulness of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in left ventricular non-compaction cardiomyopathy. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2011; 13(5): 577.
70. Citro R., Lyon A.R., Meimoun P. et al.: Standard and advanced echocardiography in takotsubo (stress) cardiomyopathy: clinical and prognostic implications. J. Am. Soc. Echocardiogr. 2015; 28(1): 57-74.
71. Grabowski M., Piatkowski R., Scislo P. et al.: Real-time three-dimensional echocardiography in transient left apical ballooning syndrome. Int. J. Cardiol. 2008; 129(3): e69-70.
72. Schoof S., Bertram H., Hohmann D. et al.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy in a 2-year-old girl: 3-dimensional visualization of reversible left ventricular dysfunction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010; 55(3): e5.
73. Meimoun P., Malaqun D., Benali T. et al.: Transient impairment of coronary flow reserve in tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy is related to left ventricular systolic parameters. Eur. J. Echocardiogr. 2009; 10(2): 265-270.
74. Breithardt O.A., Becker M., Kalsch T., Haghi D.: Follow-up in Tako-tsubo cardiomyopathy by real-time three-dimensional echocardiography. Heart 2008; 94(2): 210.
75. Andrade A.A., Stainback R.F.: Takotsubo cardiomyopathy. Tex. Heart Inst. J. 2014; 41(3): 299-303.
76. Kohan A.A., Levy Yeyati E., De Stefano L. et al.: Usefulness of MRI in takotsubo cardiomyopathy: a review of the literature. Cardiovasc. Diagn. Ther. 2014; 4(2): 138-146.
77. Friedrich M.G., Marcotte F.: Cardiac magnetic resonance assessment of myocarditis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2013; 6(5): 833-839.
78. Goitein O., Matetzky S., Beinart R. et al.: Acute myocarditis: noninvasive evaluation with cardiac MRI and transthoracic echocardiography. AJR Am. J. Roentgenol. 2009; 192(1): 254-258.
79. Lobo A., Lewis J.F., Conti C.R.: Intracardiac masses detected by echocardiography: case presentations and review of the literature. Clin. Cardiol. 2000; 23(9): 702-708.
80. Ragland M.M., Tak T.: The role of echocardiography in diagnosing space-occupying lesions of the heart. Clin. Med. Res. 2006; 4(1): 22-32.
81. Mugge A., Daniel W.G., Haverich A., Lichtlen P.R.: Diagnosis of noninfective cardiac mass lesions by two-dimensional echocardiography. Comparison of the transthoracic and transesophageal approaches. Circulation 1991: 83(1): 70-78.
82. Hoey E.T., Shahid M., Ganeshan A. et al.: MRI assessment of cardiac tumours: part 1, multiparametric imaging protocols and spectrum of appearances of histologically benign lesions. Quant. Imaging Med. Surg. 2014; 4(6): 478-488.
83. Hoffmann U., Globits S., Frank H.: Cardiac and paracardiac masses. Current opinion on diagnostic evaluation by magnetic resonance imaging. Eur. Heart J. 1998; 19(4): 553-563.
84. Vahanian A., Alfieri O., Andreotti F. et al.: [Guidelines on the management of valvular heart disease (version 2012). The Joint Task Force on the Management of Valvular Heart Disease of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) and the European Association for Cardio-Thoracic Surgery (EACTS)]. G. Ital. Cardiol. (Rome) 2013; 14(3): 167-214.
85. Lang R.M., Mor-Avi V., Sugeng L. et al.: Three-dimensional echocardiography: the benefits of the additional dimension. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006; 48(10): 2053-2069.
86. Hirsch R., Kilner P.J., Connelly M.S. et al.: Diagnosis in adolescents and adults with congenital heart disease. Prospective assessment of individual and combined roles of magnetic resonance imaging and transesophageal echocardiography. Circulation 1994; 90(6): 2937-2951.
87. Ntsinjana H.N., Hughes M.L., Taylor A.M.: The role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in pediatric congenital heart disease. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2011; 13: 51.
88. Baumgartner H., Bonhoeffer P., De Groot N.M. et al.: ESC Guidelines for the management of grown-up congenital heart disease (new version 2010). Eur. Heart J. 2010; 31(23): 2915-2957.
89. Minette M.S., Sahn D.J.: Ventricular septal defects. Circulation 2006; 114(20): 2190-2197.
90. Steffens J.C., Bourne M.W., Sakuma H. et al.: Quantification of collateral blood flow in coarctation of the aorta by velocity encoded cine magnetic resonance imaging. Circulation 1994; 90(2): 937-943.
91. Walsh R., Nielsen J.C., Ko H.H. et al.: Imaging of congenital coronary artery anomalies. Pediatr. Radiol. 2011; 41(12): 1526-1535.
92. McConnell M.V., Ganz P., Selwyn A.P. et al.: Identification of anomalous coronary arteries and their anatomic course by magnetic resonance coronary angiography. Circulation 1995; 92(11): 3158-3162.
93. The clinical role of magnetic resonance in cardiovascular disease. Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology, in collaboration with the Association of European Paediatric Cardiologists. Eur. Heart J. 1998; 19(1): 19-39.
94. Cosyns B., Plein S., Nihoyanopoulos P. et al.: European Association of Cardiovascular Imaging (EACVI) position paper: Multimodality imaging in pericardial disease. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2015; 16(1): 12-31.
95. Hernandez C.M., Singh P., Hage F.G. et al.: Live/Real time three-dimensional transthoracic echocardiographic assessment of pericardial disease. Echocardiography 2009; 26(10): 1250-1263.
96. Tsang T.S., Oh J.K., Seward J.B.: Diagnosis and management of cardiac tamponade in the era of echocardiography. Clin. Cardiol. 1999; 22(7): 446-452.
97. Schwefer M., Aschenbach R., Heidemann J. et al.: Constrictive pericarditis, still a diagnostic challenge: comprehensive review of clinical management. Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg. 2009; 36(3): 502-510.
98. Gopal A.S., Shen Z., Sapin P.M. et al.: Assessment of cardiac function by three-dimensional echocardiography compared with conventional noninvasive methods. Circulation 1995; 92(4): 842-853.