An update on myocarditis Review article
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Published:
Mar 31, 2013
Keywords:
myocarditis, heart failure, cardiomyopathy, viral DNA
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Abstract
Miocarditis and its complications (eg. cardiomyopathy, heart failure) currently account for significant percentage of causes for hospitalizations on cardiology wards. Article reviews actual knowledge on diagnosing miocarditis, clinical and pathologic classification of the disease, laboratory findings, imaging techniques and invasive diagnostic options (incl. endomiocardial biopsy). Furthermore, treatment options are reviewed, especially innovative treatment options using etiology-based approach.
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Możeńska , O. (2013). An update on myocarditis. Cardiology in Practice, 7(1), 27-40. Retrieved from https://journalsmededu.pl/index.php/kwp/article/view/1576
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Copyright: © Medical Education sp. z o.o. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/), allowing third parties to copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format and to remix, transform, and build upon the material, provided the original work is properly cited and states its license.
Address reprint requests to: Medical Education, Marcin Kuźma (marcin.kuzma@mededu.pl)
References
1. Mahrholdt H., Wagner A., Deluigi C.C. et al.: Presentation, patterns of myocardial damage, and clinical course of viral myocarditis. Circulation 2006, 114: 1581.
2. O’Connell J.B.: Diagnosis and medical treatment of inflammatory cardiomyopathy. W: Cardiovascular Medicine, Topol E., Nissen J. (red.). Lippincott- Raven, Philadelphia 1998: rozdz. 100.
3. Dec G.W. Jr., Palacios I.F., Fallon J.T. et al.: Active myocarditis in the spectrum of acute dilated cardiomyopathies. Clinical features, histologic correlates, and clinical outcome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985, 312: 885.
4. O’Connell J.B., Mason J.W.: Diagnosing and treating active myocarditis. West J. Med. 1989, 150: 431.
5. Olinde K.D., O’Connell J.B.: Inflammatory heart disease: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of myocarditis. Annu. Rev. Med. 1994, 45: 481.
6. Ansari A.A., Wang Y.C., Danner D.J. et al.: Abnormal expression of histocompatibility and mitochondrial antigens by cardiac tissue from patients with myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Pathol. 1991, 139: 337.
7. Grist N.R., Bell E.J.: Coxsackie viruses and the heart. Am. Heart J. 1969, 77: 295.
8. Gerzen P., Granath A., Holmgren B., Zetterquist S.: Acute myocarditis. A follow-up study. Br. Heart J. 1972, 34: 575.
9. Baughman K.L.: Diagnosis of myocarditis: death of Dallas criteria. Circulation 2006, 113: 593.
10. Friedrich M.G., Sechtem U., Schulz-Menger J. et al.: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: A JACC White Paper. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009, 53: 1475.
11. Engler R.J., Collins L.C., Gibbs B.T. et al.: Myocarditis after smallpox/vaccinia immunization: Passive vaccine safety surveillance compared to prospective studies. J. Allerg. Clin. Immunol. 2009, 123: S264.
12. Mason J.W., O’Connell J.B., Herskowitz A. et al.: A clinical trial of immunosuppressive therapy for myocarditis. The Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995, 333: 269.
13. Felker G.M., Thompson R.E., Hare J.M. et al.: Underlying causes and long-term survival in patients with initially unexplained cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. \J. Med. 2000, 342: 1077.
14. Dec G.W. Jr, Waldman H., Southern J. et al.: Viral myocarditis mimicking acute myocardial infarction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1992, 20: 85.
15. Sarda L., Colin P., Boccara F. et al.: Myocarditis in patients with clinical presentation of myocardial infarction and normal coronary angiograms. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2001, 37: 786.
16. Miklozek C.L., Crumpacker C.S., Royal H.D. et al.: Myocarditis presenting as acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 1988, 115: 768.
17. Angelini A., Calzolari V., Calabrese F. et al.: Myocarditis mimicking acute myocardial infarction: role of endomyocardial biopsy in the differential diagnosis. Heart 2000, 84: 245.
18. Karjalainen J., Heikkilä J.: Incidence of three presentations of acute myocarditis in young men in military service. A 20-year experience. Eur. Heart J. 1999, 20: 1120.
19. McCully R.B., Cooper L.T., Schreiter S.: Coronary artery spasm in lymphocytic myocarditis: a rare cause of acute myocardial infarction. Heart 2005, 91: 202.
20. Theleman K.P., Kuiper J.J., Roberts W.C.: Acute myocarditis (predominately lymphocytic) causing sudden death without heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 2001, 88: 1078.
21. Drory Y., Turetz Y., Hiss Y. et al.: Sudden unexpected death in persons less than 40 years of age. Am. J. Cardiol. 1991, 68: 1388.
22. Maron B.J., Carney K.P., Lever H.M. et al.: Relationship of race to sudden cardiac death in competitive athletes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003, 41: 974.
23. Eckart R.E., Scoville S.L., Campbell C.L. et al.: Sudden death in young adults: a 25-year review of autopsies in military recruits. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004, 141: 829.
24. Maron B.J., Doerer J.J., Haas T.S. et al.: Sudden deaths in young competitive athletes: analysis of 1866 deaths in the United States, 1980-2006. Circulation 2009, 119: 1085.
25. Rahman J.E., Helou E.F., Gelzer-Bell R. et al.: Noninvasive diagnosis of biopsy-proven cardiac amyloidosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2004, 43: 410.
26. Frustaci A., Verardo R., Caldarulo M. et al.: Myocarditis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy patients presenting acute clinical deterioration. Eur. Heart J. 2007, 28: 733.
27. Chimenti C., Pieroni M., Maseri A., Frustaci A.: Histologic findings in patients with clinical and instrumental diagnosis of sporadic arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2004, 43: 2305.
28. Lieberman E.B., Hutchins G.M., Herskowitz A. et al.: Clinicopathologic description of myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1991, 18: 1617.
29. McCarthy RE 3rd, Boehmer J.P., Hruban R.H. et al.: Long-term outcome of fulminant myocarditis as compared with acute (nonfulminant) myocarditis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 342: 690.
30. Smith S.C., Ladenson J.H., Mason J.W., Jaffe A.S.: Elevations of cardiac troponin I associated with myocarditis. Experimental and clinical correlates. Circulation 1997, 95: 163.
31. Lauer B., Niederau C., Kühl U. et al.: Cardiac troponin T in patients with clinically suspected myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1997, 30: 1354.
32. Wang K., Asinger R.W., Marriott H.J.: ST-segment elevation in conditions other than acute myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 349: 2128.
33. Nakashima H., Katayama T., Ishizaki M. et al.: Q wave and non-Q wave myocarditis with special reference to clinical significance. Jpn. Heart J. 1998, 39: 763.
34. Nieminen M.S., Heikkilä J., Karjalainen J.: Echocardiography in acute infectious myocarditis: relation to clinical and electrocardiographic findings. Am. J. Cardiol. 1984, 53: 1331.
35. Pinamonti B., Alberti E., Cigalotto A. et al.: Echocardiographic findings in myocarditis. Am. J. Cardiol. 1988, 62: 285.
36. Mendes L.A., Picard M.H., Dec G.W. et al.: Ventricular remodeling in active myocarditis. Myocarditis Treatment Trial. Am. Heart J. 1999, 138: 303.
37. Urhausen A., Kindermann M., Bohm M., Kindermann W.: Images in cardiovascular medicine. Diagnosis of myocarditis by cardiac tissue velocity imaging in an olympic athlete. Circulation 2003, 108: e21.
38. Felker G.M., Boehmer J.P., Hruban R.H. et al.: Echocardiographic findings in fulminant and acute myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2000, 36: 227.
39. Abdel-Aty H., Boye P., Zagrosek A. et al.: Diagnostic performance of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients with suspected acute myocarditis: comparison of different approaches. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005, 45: 1815-1822.
40. Friedrich M.G., Strohm O., Schulz-Menger J. et al.: Contrast media-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging visualizes myocardial changes in the course of viral myocarditis. Circulation 1998, 97: 1802-1809.
41. Roditi G.H., Hartnell G.C., Cohen M.C.: MRI changes in myocarditis – evaluation with spin echo, cine MR angiography and contrast enhanced spin echo imaging. Clin. Radiol. 2000, 55: 752-758.
42. Mahrholdt H., Goedecke C., Wagner A. et al.: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of human myocarditis: a comparison to histology and molecular pathology. Circulation 2004, 109: 1250-1258.
43. Laissy J.P., Hyafil F., Feldman L.J. et al.: Differentiating acute myocardial infarction from myocarditis: diagnostic value of early- and delayed-perfusion cardiac M.R. imaging. Radiology 2005, 237: 75-82.
44. Ingkanisorn W.P., Paterson D.I., Calvo K.R. et al.: Cardiac magnetic resonance appearance of myocarditis caused by high dose IL-2: similarities to community-acquired myocarditis. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2006, 8: 353-360.
45. Silva C., Moon J.C., Elkington A.G. et al.: Myocardial late gadolinium enhancement in specific cardiomyopathies by cardiovascular magnetic resonance: a preliminary experience. J. Cardiovasc. Med. (Hagerstown) 2007, 8: 1076-1079.
46. De Cobelli F., Pieroni M., Esposito A. et al.: Delayed gadolinium-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance in patients with chronic myocarditis presenting with heart failure or recurrent arrhythmias. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006, 47: 1649-1654.
47. Hunold P., Schlosser T., Vogt F.M. et al.: Myocardial late enhancement in contrast-enhanced cardiac MRI: distinction between infarction scar and non-infarction-related disease. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2005, 184: 1420-1426.
48. Gutberlet M., Spors B., Thoma T. et al.: Suspected chronic myocarditis at cardiac MR: diagnostic accuracy and association with immunohistologically detected inflammation and viral persistence. Radiology 2008, 246: 401-409.
49. Cooper L.T., Baughman K.L., Feldman A.M. et al.: The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. Circulation 2007, 116: 2216.
50. Aretz H.T., Billingham M.E., Edwards W.D. et al.: Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification. Am. J. Cardiovasc. Pathol. 1987, 1: 3.
51. Wu L.A., Lapeyre A.C. 3rd, Cooper L.T.: Current role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2001, 76: 1030.
52. Hauck A.J., Kearney D.L., Edwards W.D.: Evaluation of postmortem endomyocardial biopsy specimens from 38 patients with lymphocytic myocarditis: implications for role of sampling error. Mayo Clin. Proc. 1989, 64: 1235.
53. Martin A.B., Webber S., Fricker F.J. et al.: Acute myocarditis. Rapid diagnosis by PCR in children. Circulation 1994, 90: 330.
54. Kühl U., Pauschinger M., Noutsias M. et al.: High prevalence of viral genomes and multiple viral infections in the myocardium of adults with “idiopathic” left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2005, 111: 887.
55. Frustaci A., Russo M.A., Chimenti C.: Randomized study on the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with virus-negative inflammatory cardiomyopathy: the TIMIC study. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30: 1995.
56. Schultheiss H.P., Kuehl U.: Cardiovascular viral infections. W: Lennette’s Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections. Lennette E.H. (red.). Wyd. IV, Informa Healthcare New York, USA 2010, rozdz. 18: 304-318.
57. Kühl U., Pauschinger M., Schwimmbeck P.L., Seeberg B., Lober C., Noutsias M., Poller W., Schultheiss H.P.: Interferon-beta treatment eliminates cardiotropic viruses and improves left ventricular function in patients with myocardial persistence of viral genomes and left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2003, 107: 2793-2798.
58. Schmidt-Lucke C., Spillmann F., Bock T., Van Linthout S., Kühl U., Schultheiss H.P., Tschoepe C.: Interferon-beta modulates endothelial damage in patients with cardiac persistence of parvovirus B19V. J. Infect. Dis. 2010, 201: 936-945.
59. Schultheiss H.P., Piper C., Sowade K., Karason J.F., Kapp G., Groetzbach F., Waagstein E., Arbustini E., Siedentop H., Kuehl U.: The effect of subcutaneous treatment with interferon-beta-1b over 24 weeks on safety, virus elimination and clinical outcome in patients with chronic viral cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30: 1995-2002.
60. Frustaci A., Russo M.A., Chimenti C.: Randomized study on the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with virus-negative inflammatory cardiomyopathy: the TIMIC study. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30: 1995-2002.
61. Kühl U., Strauer B.E., Schultheiss H.P.: Methylprednisolone in chronic myocarditis. Postgrad. Med. J. 1994, 70: S35-S42.
62. Wojnicz R., Nowalany-Kozielska E., Wojciechowska C., Glanowska G., Wilczewski P., Niklewski T., Zembala M., Polonski L., Rozek M.M., Wodniecki J.: Randomized, placebo-controlled study for immunosuppressive treatment of inflammatory dilated cardiomyopathy: two-year follow-up results. Circulation 2001, 104: 39-45.
63. Drucker N.A., Colan S.D., Lewis A.B., Beiser A.S., Wessel D.L., Takahashi M., Baker A.L., Perez-Atayde A.R., Newburger J.W.: Gamma-globulin treatment of acute myocarditis in the pediatric population. Circulation 1994, 89: 252-257.
64. English R.F., Janosky J.E., Ettedgui J.A., Webber S.A.: Outcomes for children with acute myocarditis. Cardiol. Young 2004, 14: 488-493
2. O’Connell J.B.: Diagnosis and medical treatment of inflammatory cardiomyopathy. W: Cardiovascular Medicine, Topol E., Nissen J. (red.). Lippincott- Raven, Philadelphia 1998: rozdz. 100.
3. Dec G.W. Jr., Palacios I.F., Fallon J.T. et al.: Active myocarditis in the spectrum of acute dilated cardiomyopathies. Clinical features, histologic correlates, and clinical outcome. N. Engl. J. Med. 1985, 312: 885.
4. O’Connell J.B., Mason J.W.: Diagnosing and treating active myocarditis. West J. Med. 1989, 150: 431.
5. Olinde K.D., O’Connell J.B.: Inflammatory heart disease: pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of myocarditis. Annu. Rev. Med. 1994, 45: 481.
6. Ansari A.A., Wang Y.C., Danner D.J. et al.: Abnormal expression of histocompatibility and mitochondrial antigens by cardiac tissue from patients with myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. Am. J. Pathol. 1991, 139: 337.
7. Grist N.R., Bell E.J.: Coxsackie viruses and the heart. Am. Heart J. 1969, 77: 295.
8. Gerzen P., Granath A., Holmgren B., Zetterquist S.: Acute myocarditis. A follow-up study. Br. Heart J. 1972, 34: 575.
9. Baughman K.L.: Diagnosis of myocarditis: death of Dallas criteria. Circulation 2006, 113: 593.
10. Friedrich M.G., Sechtem U., Schulz-Menger J. et al.: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in myocarditis: A JACC White Paper. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2009, 53: 1475.
11. Engler R.J., Collins L.C., Gibbs B.T. et al.: Myocarditis after smallpox/vaccinia immunization: Passive vaccine safety surveillance compared to prospective studies. J. Allerg. Clin. Immunol. 2009, 123: S264.
12. Mason J.W., O’Connell J.B., Herskowitz A. et al.: A clinical trial of immunosuppressive therapy for myocarditis. The Myocarditis Treatment Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1995, 333: 269.
13. Felker G.M., Thompson R.E., Hare J.M. et al.: Underlying causes and long-term survival in patients with initially unexplained cardiomyopathy. N. Engl. \J. Med. 2000, 342: 1077.
14. Dec G.W. Jr, Waldman H., Southern J. et al.: Viral myocarditis mimicking acute myocardial infarction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1992, 20: 85.
15. Sarda L., Colin P., Boccara F. et al.: Myocarditis in patients with clinical presentation of myocardial infarction and normal coronary angiograms. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2001, 37: 786.
16. Miklozek C.L., Crumpacker C.S., Royal H.D. et al.: Myocarditis presenting as acute myocardial infarction. Am. Heart J. 1988, 115: 768.
17. Angelini A., Calzolari V., Calabrese F. et al.: Myocarditis mimicking acute myocardial infarction: role of endomyocardial biopsy in the differential diagnosis. Heart 2000, 84: 245.
18. Karjalainen J., Heikkilä J.: Incidence of three presentations of acute myocarditis in young men in military service. A 20-year experience. Eur. Heart J. 1999, 20: 1120.
19. McCully R.B., Cooper L.T., Schreiter S.: Coronary artery spasm in lymphocytic myocarditis: a rare cause of acute myocardial infarction. Heart 2005, 91: 202.
20. Theleman K.P., Kuiper J.J., Roberts W.C.: Acute myocarditis (predominately lymphocytic) causing sudden death without heart failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 2001, 88: 1078.
21. Drory Y., Turetz Y., Hiss Y. et al.: Sudden unexpected death in persons less than 40 years of age. Am. J. Cardiol. 1991, 68: 1388.
22. Maron B.J., Carney K.P., Lever H.M. et al.: Relationship of race to sudden cardiac death in competitive athletes with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2003, 41: 974.
23. Eckart R.E., Scoville S.L., Campbell C.L. et al.: Sudden death in young adults: a 25-year review of autopsies in military recruits. Ann. Intern. Med. 2004, 141: 829.
24. Maron B.J., Doerer J.J., Haas T.S. et al.: Sudden deaths in young competitive athletes: analysis of 1866 deaths in the United States, 1980-2006. Circulation 2009, 119: 1085.
25. Rahman J.E., Helou E.F., Gelzer-Bell R. et al.: Noninvasive diagnosis of biopsy-proven cardiac amyloidosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2004, 43: 410.
26. Frustaci A., Verardo R., Caldarulo M. et al.: Myocarditis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy patients presenting acute clinical deterioration. Eur. Heart J. 2007, 28: 733.
27. Chimenti C., Pieroni M., Maseri A., Frustaci A.: Histologic findings in patients with clinical and instrumental diagnosis of sporadic arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2004, 43: 2305.
28. Lieberman E.B., Hutchins G.M., Herskowitz A. et al.: Clinicopathologic description of myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1991, 18: 1617.
29. McCarthy RE 3rd, Boehmer J.P., Hruban R.H. et al.: Long-term outcome of fulminant myocarditis as compared with acute (nonfulminant) myocarditis. N. Engl. J. Med. 2000, 342: 690.
30. Smith S.C., Ladenson J.H., Mason J.W., Jaffe A.S.: Elevations of cardiac troponin I associated with myocarditis. Experimental and clinical correlates. Circulation 1997, 95: 163.
31. Lauer B., Niederau C., Kühl U. et al.: Cardiac troponin T in patients with clinically suspected myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 1997, 30: 1354.
32. Wang K., Asinger R.W., Marriott H.J.: ST-segment elevation in conditions other than acute myocardial infarction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2003, 349: 2128.
33. Nakashima H., Katayama T., Ishizaki M. et al.: Q wave and non-Q wave myocarditis with special reference to clinical significance. Jpn. Heart J. 1998, 39: 763.
34. Nieminen M.S., Heikkilä J., Karjalainen J.: Echocardiography in acute infectious myocarditis: relation to clinical and electrocardiographic findings. Am. J. Cardiol. 1984, 53: 1331.
35. Pinamonti B., Alberti E., Cigalotto A. et al.: Echocardiographic findings in myocarditis. Am. J. Cardiol. 1988, 62: 285.
36. Mendes L.A., Picard M.H., Dec G.W. et al.: Ventricular remodeling in active myocarditis. Myocarditis Treatment Trial. Am. Heart J. 1999, 138: 303.
37. Urhausen A., Kindermann M., Bohm M., Kindermann W.: Images in cardiovascular medicine. Diagnosis of myocarditis by cardiac tissue velocity imaging in an olympic athlete. Circulation 2003, 108: e21.
38. Felker G.M., Boehmer J.P., Hruban R.H. et al.: Echocardiographic findings in fulminant and acute myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2000, 36: 227.
39. Abdel-Aty H., Boye P., Zagrosek A. et al.: Diagnostic performance of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in patients with suspected acute myocarditis: comparison of different approaches. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005, 45: 1815-1822.
40. Friedrich M.G., Strohm O., Schulz-Menger J. et al.: Contrast media-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging visualizes myocardial changes in the course of viral myocarditis. Circulation 1998, 97: 1802-1809.
41. Roditi G.H., Hartnell G.C., Cohen M.C.: MRI changes in myocarditis – evaluation with spin echo, cine MR angiography and contrast enhanced spin echo imaging. Clin. Radiol. 2000, 55: 752-758.
42. Mahrholdt H., Goedecke C., Wagner A. et al.: Cardiovascular magnetic resonance assessment of human myocarditis: a comparison to histology and molecular pathology. Circulation 2004, 109: 1250-1258.
43. Laissy J.P., Hyafil F., Feldman L.J. et al.: Differentiating acute myocardial infarction from myocarditis: diagnostic value of early- and delayed-perfusion cardiac M.R. imaging. Radiology 2005, 237: 75-82.
44. Ingkanisorn W.P., Paterson D.I., Calvo K.R. et al.: Cardiac magnetic resonance appearance of myocarditis caused by high dose IL-2: similarities to community-acquired myocarditis. J. Cardiovasc. Magn. Reson. 2006, 8: 353-360.
45. Silva C., Moon J.C., Elkington A.G. et al.: Myocardial late gadolinium enhancement in specific cardiomyopathies by cardiovascular magnetic resonance: a preliminary experience. J. Cardiovasc. Med. (Hagerstown) 2007, 8: 1076-1079.
46. De Cobelli F., Pieroni M., Esposito A. et al.: Delayed gadolinium-enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance in patients with chronic myocarditis presenting with heart failure or recurrent arrhythmias. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006, 47: 1649-1654.
47. Hunold P., Schlosser T., Vogt F.M. et al.: Myocardial late enhancement in contrast-enhanced cardiac MRI: distinction between infarction scar and non-infarction-related disease. Am. J. Roentgenol. 2005, 184: 1420-1426.
48. Gutberlet M., Spors B., Thoma T. et al.: Suspected chronic myocarditis at cardiac MR: diagnostic accuracy and association with immunohistologically detected inflammation and viral persistence. Radiology 2008, 246: 401-409.
49. Cooper L.T., Baughman K.L., Feldman A.M. et al.: The role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of cardiovascular disease: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association, the American College of Cardiology, and the European Society of Cardiology. Circulation 2007, 116: 2216.
50. Aretz H.T., Billingham M.E., Edwards W.D. et al.: Myocarditis. A histopathologic definition and classification. Am. J. Cardiovasc. Pathol. 1987, 1: 3.
51. Wu L.A., Lapeyre A.C. 3rd, Cooper L.T.: Current role of endomyocardial biopsy in the management of dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. Mayo Clin. Proc. 2001, 76: 1030.
52. Hauck A.J., Kearney D.L., Edwards W.D.: Evaluation of postmortem endomyocardial biopsy specimens from 38 patients with lymphocytic myocarditis: implications for role of sampling error. Mayo Clin. Proc. 1989, 64: 1235.
53. Martin A.B., Webber S., Fricker F.J. et al.: Acute myocarditis. Rapid diagnosis by PCR in children. Circulation 1994, 90: 330.
54. Kühl U., Pauschinger M., Noutsias M. et al.: High prevalence of viral genomes and multiple viral infections in the myocardium of adults with “idiopathic” left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2005, 111: 887.
55. Frustaci A., Russo M.A., Chimenti C.: Randomized study on the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with virus-negative inflammatory cardiomyopathy: the TIMIC study. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30: 1995.
56. Schultheiss H.P., Kuehl U.: Cardiovascular viral infections. W: Lennette’s Laboratory Diagnosis of Viral Infections. Lennette E.H. (red.). Wyd. IV, Informa Healthcare New York, USA 2010, rozdz. 18: 304-318.
57. Kühl U., Pauschinger M., Schwimmbeck P.L., Seeberg B., Lober C., Noutsias M., Poller W., Schultheiss H.P.: Interferon-beta treatment eliminates cardiotropic viruses and improves left ventricular function in patients with myocardial persistence of viral genomes and left ventricular dysfunction. Circulation 2003, 107: 2793-2798.
58. Schmidt-Lucke C., Spillmann F., Bock T., Van Linthout S., Kühl U., Schultheiss H.P., Tschoepe C.: Interferon-beta modulates endothelial damage in patients with cardiac persistence of parvovirus B19V. J. Infect. Dis. 2010, 201: 936-945.
59. Schultheiss H.P., Piper C., Sowade K., Karason J.F., Kapp G., Groetzbach F., Waagstein E., Arbustini E., Siedentop H., Kuehl U.: The effect of subcutaneous treatment with interferon-beta-1b over 24 weeks on safety, virus elimination and clinical outcome in patients with chronic viral cardiomyopathy. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30: 1995-2002.
60. Frustaci A., Russo M.A., Chimenti C.: Randomized study on the efficacy of immunosuppressive therapy in patients with virus-negative inflammatory cardiomyopathy: the TIMIC study. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30: 1995-2002.
61. Kühl U., Strauer B.E., Schultheiss H.P.: Methylprednisolone in chronic myocarditis. Postgrad. Med. J. 1994, 70: S35-S42.
62. Wojnicz R., Nowalany-Kozielska E., Wojciechowska C., Glanowska G., Wilczewski P., Niklewski T., Zembala M., Polonski L., Rozek M.M., Wodniecki J.: Randomized, placebo-controlled study for immunosuppressive treatment of inflammatory dilated cardiomyopathy: two-year follow-up results. Circulation 2001, 104: 39-45.
63. Drucker N.A., Colan S.D., Lewis A.B., Beiser A.S., Wessel D.L., Takahashi M., Baker A.L., Perez-Atayde A.R., Newburger J.W.: Gamma-globulin treatment of acute myocarditis in the pediatric population. Circulation 1994, 89: 252-257.
64. English R.F., Janosky J.E., Ettedgui J.A., Webber S.A.: Outcomes for children with acute myocarditis. Cardiol. Young 2004, 14: 488-493